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Crisis and Security Management Msc - Crisis and
Risk Communication
+ Mandatory Reading Summaries.
+ Lecture Notes after the 27th of February.
Week 1 - 7 of CRC, given at Leiden University.
Missing:
- Week 2b and Week 4a optional readings.
- Week 6 & 7 have no required readings.
Good luck!
, 2
Required Readings
Coombs, W. T., and S. J. Holladay, eds. The handbook of crisis communication.......................................................3
Sellnow-Richmond, D. D., George, A. M., & Sellnow D. D. (2018). An IDEA model analysis 6 of instructional
risk communication in the time of Ebola........................................................................................................................ 7
Jong, W., & van der Linde, V. (2022). Clean diesel and dirty scandal: The echo of Volkswagen’s dieselgate in an
intra-industry setting......................................................................................................................................................11
D. R. Griffin-Padgett & Allison, D. (2010) Making a Case for Restorative Rhetoric: Mayor Rudolph Giuliani &
Mayor Ray Nagin'’ Response to Disaster..................................................................................................................... 14
Martinko, M.J, Breaux, D.M. Martinez, A.D., Summers, J. and Harvey, P. (2009), Hurricane Katrina and
Attributions of Responsibility....................................................................................................................................... 17
Jong, W. (2017), Meaning making by public leaders in times of crisis: An assessment............................................. 20
Hart, P. 't (1993), Symbols, Rituals and Power: The Lost Dimensions of Crisis Management.................................. 24
Marynissen, H., Lauder, M. (2020) Stakeholder-Focused Communication Strategy During Crisis: A Case Study
Based on the Brussels Terror Attacks........................................................................................................................... 27
Broersma, M. (2010), The Unbearable Limitations of Journalism: On Press Critique and Journalism’s Claim to
Truth.............................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Jong, W., & Broekman, P. (2021). Crisis history and hindsight: A stakeholder perspective on the case of Boeing
737-Max........................................................................................................................................................................ 34
Seeger, M.W. (2006) Best Practices in Crisis Communication: An Expert Panel Process.......................................... 34
Wang, Y., & Laufer, D. (2025). Managing spillover crises in the age of generative AI.............................................37
De Waele, A., Claeys, A.-S., Opgenhaffen, M., (2020). Preparing to face the media in times of crisis: Training
spokespersons’ verbal and nonverbal cues................................................................................................................... 41
Coombs, W. T., & Laufer, D. (2018). Global crisis management: Current research and future directions....... 46
Frandsen, F., & Johansen, W. (2010). Crisis Communication, Complexity, and the Cartoon Affair: A Case Study....48
Mehta, A.M., Liu, B.F., Tyquin, E., Tam, L., 2021. A process view of crisis misinformation: How public relations
professionals detect, manage, and evaluate crisis misinformation............................................................................... 52
Nicolas Vanderbiest (2016) EENA Case Study Brussels Attacks. Crossover between research and reality.............. 56
Benoit, W. L. (2018). Crisis and image repair at united airlines: Fly the unfriendly skies..........................................59
Schultz, F., Utz, S., and Göritz, A. (2011). Is the medium the message? Perceptions of and reactions to crisis
communication via twitter, blogs and traditional media............................................................................................... 62
Jong, W., & Brataas, K. (2021). Victims as stakeholders: Insights from the intersection of psychosocial, ethical,
and crisis communication paths.................................................................................................................................... 62
Sellnow, D. D., Lane, D., Littlefield, R. S., Sellnow, T. L., Wilson, B., Beauchamp, K., & Venette, S. (2015). A
receiver‐based approach to effective instructional crisis communication....................................................................65
Adams, R. M., Karlin, B., Eisenman, D. P., Blakley, J., & Glik, D. (2017). Who participates in the Great Shake
Out? Why audience segmentation is the future of disaster preparedness campaigns................................................... 69
Daellenbach, K., Parkinson, J., & Krisjanous, J. (2018). Just how prepared are you? An application of marketing
segmentation and theory of planned behavior for disaster preparation........................................................................ 72
Carter, H., Drury, J., & Amlôt, R. (2020). Social identity and intergroup relationships in the management of
crowds during mass emergencies and disasters: recommendations for emergency planners and responders.............. 76
Still, G. K., & Still, E. (2021). Applied Crowd Science. CRC Press. The chapter written by E. Kant....................... 78
, 3
Week 1a - Intro
Coombs, W. T., and S. J. Holladay, eds. The handbook of crisis
communication.
Intro
● Provides definitions, maps the crisis → crisis management → crisis communication
progression, reviews key models/theories, and identifies research gaps and future
directions.
Key definitions
I. Crisis = the perception of an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of
stakeholders and can seriously impact an organisation’s performance and generate
negative outcomes. (Emphasis on perceptual nature, stakeholder expectations, and
potential to harm stakeholders/org).
II. Crisis management = a set of factors designed to combat crises and to lessen the actual
damages inflicted; a process including pre-crisis (prevention/preparation), crisis
(response), and post-crisis (learning/evaluation).
III. Crisis communication = the collection, processing, and dissemination of information
required to address a crisis situation (covers pre-crisis risk communication and training,
crisis-phase messages and actions, and post-crisis follow-up/learning).
Why definitions matter
● Definitions set boundaries for research and practice (e.g., distinguish incident vs. crisis
because the label “crisis” triggers resource allocation).
● Emphasizes crises are anomalies (violate stakeholder expectations) and often socially
constructed via stakeholder perceptions.
Crisis management process (models & phases)
● Historical roots: emergency & disaster management → organizational crisis management
(Fink, Mitroff, Smith).
● Common stage models:
○ Fink: prodromal → acute → chronic → resolution.
○ Smith: crisis incubates → operational crisis → crisis of legitimization
(media/government interest) with feedback.
○ Mitroff: signal detection → probing/prevention → damage containment →
recovery → learning (Mitroff highlights learning).
, 4
● Chapter’s organizing model: three phases → pre-crisis, crisis, post-crisis (used to
frame crisis communication topics).
General nature of crisis communication research
● Field is highly applied: practice (war stories, practitioner advice) → academic case
studies → theory development → experimental/formal testing.
● Calls for movement toward evidence-based management (test common advice
empirically).
Crisis communication types (two broad functions)
I. Crisis knowledge management → behind-the-scenes work:
identifying/collecting/analyzing information and supporting crisis team decision-making.
II. Stakeholder reaction management → public messages & actions intended to shape
stakeholder perceptions and behaviors (what research has concentrated on).
Pre-crisis phase (prevention & preparation)
● Focus: risk identification (crisis sensing), prevention, reputation building, and
stakeholder inoculation (pre-crisis messages to increase resistance to negative reactions).
● Important activities:
○ Environmental scanning / issues management integration (proactive symmetrical
crisis management).
○ Spokesperson training, exercises to build situational awareness and self-/response
efficacy (EPPM application).
○ Risk communication and community exercises increase vigilance and compliance
when messages are culturally/situation-sensitive.
● Research gaps: crisis sensing, theory on monitoring tools (esp. internet), and better
integration of risk communication into pre-crisis planning.
Crisis response phase (most researched)
● Tactical advice: four long-standing principles → avoid “no comment”, be quick, be
accurate, be consistent (speak with one voice → coordinate multiple spokespeople).
“Stealing thunder” (proactive disclosure) reduces reputational damage.
● Strategic framing (Sturges): three strategic focuses → (1) instructing information
(how to cope physically; public safety first), (2) adjusting information (psychological
coping; sympathy, corrective action), (3) reputation repair (ameliorate reputational
damage).
1
Crisis and Security Management Msc - Crisis and
Risk Communication
+ Mandatory Reading Summaries.
+ Lecture Notes after the 27th of February.
Week 1 - 7 of CRC, given at Leiden University.
Missing:
- Week 2b and Week 4a optional readings.
- Week 6 & 7 have no required readings.
Good luck!
, 2
Required Readings
Coombs, W. T., and S. J. Holladay, eds. The handbook of crisis communication.......................................................3
Sellnow-Richmond, D. D., George, A. M., & Sellnow D. D. (2018). An IDEA model analysis 6 of instructional
risk communication in the time of Ebola........................................................................................................................ 7
Jong, W., & van der Linde, V. (2022). Clean diesel and dirty scandal: The echo of Volkswagen’s dieselgate in an
intra-industry setting......................................................................................................................................................11
D. R. Griffin-Padgett & Allison, D. (2010) Making a Case for Restorative Rhetoric: Mayor Rudolph Giuliani &
Mayor Ray Nagin'’ Response to Disaster..................................................................................................................... 14
Martinko, M.J, Breaux, D.M. Martinez, A.D., Summers, J. and Harvey, P. (2009), Hurricane Katrina and
Attributions of Responsibility....................................................................................................................................... 17
Jong, W. (2017), Meaning making by public leaders in times of crisis: An assessment............................................. 20
Hart, P. 't (1993), Symbols, Rituals and Power: The Lost Dimensions of Crisis Management.................................. 24
Marynissen, H., Lauder, M. (2020) Stakeholder-Focused Communication Strategy During Crisis: A Case Study
Based on the Brussels Terror Attacks........................................................................................................................... 27
Broersma, M. (2010), The Unbearable Limitations of Journalism: On Press Critique and Journalism’s Claim to
Truth.............................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Jong, W., & Broekman, P. (2021). Crisis history and hindsight: A stakeholder perspective on the case of Boeing
737-Max........................................................................................................................................................................ 34
Seeger, M.W. (2006) Best Practices in Crisis Communication: An Expert Panel Process.......................................... 34
Wang, Y., & Laufer, D. (2025). Managing spillover crises in the age of generative AI.............................................37
De Waele, A., Claeys, A.-S., Opgenhaffen, M., (2020). Preparing to face the media in times of crisis: Training
spokespersons’ verbal and nonverbal cues................................................................................................................... 41
Coombs, W. T., & Laufer, D. (2018). Global crisis management: Current research and future directions....... 46
Frandsen, F., & Johansen, W. (2010). Crisis Communication, Complexity, and the Cartoon Affair: A Case Study....48
Mehta, A.M., Liu, B.F., Tyquin, E., Tam, L., 2021. A process view of crisis misinformation: How public relations
professionals detect, manage, and evaluate crisis misinformation............................................................................... 52
Nicolas Vanderbiest (2016) EENA Case Study Brussels Attacks. Crossover between research and reality.............. 56
Benoit, W. L. (2018). Crisis and image repair at united airlines: Fly the unfriendly skies..........................................59
Schultz, F., Utz, S., and Göritz, A. (2011). Is the medium the message? Perceptions of and reactions to crisis
communication via twitter, blogs and traditional media............................................................................................... 62
Jong, W., & Brataas, K. (2021). Victims as stakeholders: Insights from the intersection of psychosocial, ethical,
and crisis communication paths.................................................................................................................................... 62
Sellnow, D. D., Lane, D., Littlefield, R. S., Sellnow, T. L., Wilson, B., Beauchamp, K., & Venette, S. (2015). A
receiver‐based approach to effective instructional crisis communication....................................................................65
Adams, R. M., Karlin, B., Eisenman, D. P., Blakley, J., & Glik, D. (2017). Who participates in the Great Shake
Out? Why audience segmentation is the future of disaster preparedness campaigns................................................... 69
Daellenbach, K., Parkinson, J., & Krisjanous, J. (2018). Just how prepared are you? An application of marketing
segmentation and theory of planned behavior for disaster preparation........................................................................ 72
Carter, H., Drury, J., & Amlôt, R. (2020). Social identity and intergroup relationships in the management of
crowds during mass emergencies and disasters: recommendations for emergency planners and responders.............. 76
Still, G. K., & Still, E. (2021). Applied Crowd Science. CRC Press. The chapter written by E. Kant....................... 78
, 3
Week 1a - Intro
Coombs, W. T., and S. J. Holladay, eds. The handbook of crisis
communication.
Intro
● Provides definitions, maps the crisis → crisis management → crisis communication
progression, reviews key models/theories, and identifies research gaps and future
directions.
Key definitions
I. Crisis = the perception of an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of
stakeholders and can seriously impact an organisation’s performance and generate
negative outcomes. (Emphasis on perceptual nature, stakeholder expectations, and
potential to harm stakeholders/org).
II. Crisis management = a set of factors designed to combat crises and to lessen the actual
damages inflicted; a process including pre-crisis (prevention/preparation), crisis
(response), and post-crisis (learning/evaluation).
III. Crisis communication = the collection, processing, and dissemination of information
required to address a crisis situation (covers pre-crisis risk communication and training,
crisis-phase messages and actions, and post-crisis follow-up/learning).
Why definitions matter
● Definitions set boundaries for research and practice (e.g., distinguish incident vs. crisis
because the label “crisis” triggers resource allocation).
● Emphasizes crises are anomalies (violate stakeholder expectations) and often socially
constructed via stakeholder perceptions.
Crisis management process (models & phases)
● Historical roots: emergency & disaster management → organizational crisis management
(Fink, Mitroff, Smith).
● Common stage models:
○ Fink: prodromal → acute → chronic → resolution.
○ Smith: crisis incubates → operational crisis → crisis of legitimization
(media/government interest) with feedback.
○ Mitroff: signal detection → probing/prevention → damage containment →
recovery → learning (Mitroff highlights learning).
, 4
● Chapter’s organizing model: three phases → pre-crisis, crisis, post-crisis (used to
frame crisis communication topics).
General nature of crisis communication research
● Field is highly applied: practice (war stories, practitioner advice) → academic case
studies → theory development → experimental/formal testing.
● Calls for movement toward evidence-based management (test common advice
empirically).
Crisis communication types (two broad functions)
I. Crisis knowledge management → behind-the-scenes work:
identifying/collecting/analyzing information and supporting crisis team decision-making.
II. Stakeholder reaction management → public messages & actions intended to shape
stakeholder perceptions and behaviors (what research has concentrated on).
Pre-crisis phase (prevention & preparation)
● Focus: risk identification (crisis sensing), prevention, reputation building, and
stakeholder inoculation (pre-crisis messages to increase resistance to negative reactions).
● Important activities:
○ Environmental scanning / issues management integration (proactive symmetrical
crisis management).
○ Spokesperson training, exercises to build situational awareness and self-/response
efficacy (EPPM application).
○ Risk communication and community exercises increase vigilance and compliance
when messages are culturally/situation-sensitive.
● Research gaps: crisis sensing, theory on monitoring tools (esp. internet), and better
integration of risk communication into pre-crisis planning.
Crisis response phase (most researched)
● Tactical advice: four long-standing principles → avoid “no comment”, be quick, be
accurate, be consistent (speak with one voice → coordinate multiple spokespeople).
“Stealing thunder” (proactive disclosure) reduces reputational damage.
● Strategic framing (Sturges): three strategic focuses → (1) instructing information
(how to cope physically; public safety first), (2) adjusting information (psychological
coping; sympathy, corrective action), (3) reputation repair (ameliorate reputational
damage).
