MEDIA: EFFECTENDEEL
0 INHOUDSOPGAVE
0 Inhoudsopgave ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Algemene inleiding media-effectenonderzoek ........................................................................................ 4
1.1 Geschiedenis media-effecten-onderzoek ................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Classificatie van media-effecten(onderzoek) .......................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Inhoud ............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.2 Termijn en duur .............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2.3 Soorten effecten ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.4 Directe/indirecte effecten ............................................................................................................ 10
1.2.5 Niveau van het effect .................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.6 Bedoeld of onbedoeld................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.7 Richting ......................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.8 Verklarende mechanismen ........................................................................................................... 12
1.2.9 Theorieën voor de verklaring van media-effecten (door cognitieve processen) .......................... 12
1.3 methoden van media-effecten onderzoek ............................................................................................ 13
1.3.1 Labo- experiment .......................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.2 veldonderzoek............................................................................................................................... 14
1.3.3 correlationeel onderzoek .............................................................................................................. 15
1.3.4 longitudinaal onderzoek ............................................................................................................... 17
1.3.5 meta-analyse................................................................................................................................. 18
2 Media en criminaliteit........................................................................................................................... 19
2.1 Inleiding ................................................................................................................................................ 19
2.2 een geboeid publiek? ............................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.1 Theoretisch model ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.2 Methode ....................................................................................................................................... 24
2.2.3 Resultaten ..................................................................................................................................... 25
2.3 (dis)functies van media voor gedetineerden ......................................................................................... 27
3 Media en seksualiteit ............................................................................................................................ 28
3.1 Seksualiteit in mainstream media ......................................................................................................... 28
3.1.1 Televisie ........................................................................................................................................ 28
3.1.2 Reclame......................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1.3 Videoclips ...................................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.4 Pers ............................................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.5 Social Media .................................................................................................................................. 31
3.2 effecten ................................................................................................................................................. 31
3.2.1 Media als seksuele voorlichter? .................................................................................................... 31
1
, 3.2.2 Media (televisie): “super peer” ..................................................................................................... 32
3.3 pornografie ........................................................................................................................................... 32
3.3.1 Inleiding ........................................................................................................................................ 32
3.3.2 Effecten ......................................................................................................................................... 33
3.4 bespreking tekst .................................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.1 Type mediaeffect .......................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.2 Theoretische achtergrond en hypothesen .................................................................................... 34
3.4.3 Methode ....................................................................................................................................... 35
3.4.4 Kritiek ............................................................................................................................................ 35
3.4.5 Resultaten ..................................................................................................................................... 35
3.4.6 Maatschappelijke relevantie ......................................................................................................... 35
4 Media en stereotypering ...................................................................................................................... 36
4.1 inleiding................................................................................................................................................. 36
4.2 Twee benaderingen............................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.1 sociaal cognitieve benadering ....................................................................................................... 36
4.2.2 culturele benadering ..................................................................................................................... 37
4.2.3 integratie van beide perspectieven .............................................................................................. 37
4.3 Stereotype als schema .......................................................................................................................... 38
4.3.1 Schema’s: soorten ......................................................................................................................... 38
4.3.2 Invloed van schema’s op nieuwe informatie ................................................................................ 39
4.3.3 Invloed van ervaring op bestaande schema’s ............................................................................... 40
4.4 assumpties over stereotypes ................................................................................................................. 40
4.5 functies van stereotypen ....................................................................................................................... 41
4.6 stereotypes meten ................................................................................................................................ 42
4.7 stereotiepe mediavoorstellingen........................................................................................................... 43
4.7.1 Effecten van (contra)stereotiepe mediavoorstellingen ................................................................ 43
4.7.2 Onderzoeksresultaten ................................................................................................................... 44
4.8 bespreking DIXON ................................................................................................................................. 45
4.8.1 Type media-effect ......................................................................................................................... 45
4.8.2 Theoretische achtergrond en hypothesen .................................................................................... 45
4.8.3 Methode ....................................................................................................................................... 45
4.8.4 Resultaten ..................................................................................................................................... 45
5 Media en gezondheid ........................................................................................................................... 46
5.1 Inleiding: keuze topics ........................................................................................................................... 46
5.1.1 Theory of Planned Behavior .......................................................................................................... 46
5.1.2 Prototype-Willingness ................................................................................................................... 47
5.2 Alcoholgerelateerde MEDIA-INHOUDEN & EFFECTEN OP (DETERMINANTEN VAN) ALCOHOLGEBRUIK
48
5.2.1 alcoholreclame .............................................................................................................................. 48
5.2.2 Film/TV .......................................................................................................................................... 50
5.2.3 Sociale media ................................................................................................................................ 52
5.3 Rookgerelateerde MEDIA-INHOUDEN & EFFECTEN OP (DETERMINANTEN VAN) ROOKGEDRAG ........ 53
2
, 5.3.1 Reclame......................................................................................................................................... 53
5.3.2 Film/TV .......................................................................................................................................... 54
5.4 Mediavoorstellingen van risicovol autorijden & effecten op (determinanten van) rijgedrag ............... 56
5.4.1 Film/Tv .......................................................................................................................................... 56
5.4.2 Racing games ................................................................................................................................ 57
5.5 Media-inhouden gerelateerd aan voeding en uiterlijk & effecten op (determinanten van) eetgedrag 57
5.5.1 Obesitas en anorexia..................................................................................................................... 58
5.5.2 Media en zwaarlijvigheid bij jongeren .......................................................................................... 58
5.5.3 Voedingsreclame........................................................................................................................... 58
5.5.4 Televisie ........................................................................................................................................ 59
5.5.5 Media en het vrouwelijk schoonheidsideaal................................................................................. 60
5.5.6 Media en het mannelijk schoonheidsideaal ................................................................................. 63
5.5.7 Social media .................................................................................................................................. 63
5.6 Artikel kritische analyse ........................................................................................................................ 65
6 Media en schoolprestaties .................................................................................................................... 67
6.1 Inleiding ................................................................................................................................................ 67
6.2 Televisiekijken en algemene schoolprestaties: theorieën ..................................................................... 67
6.3 Smartphonegebruik en schoolprestaties: theorieën / verklaringsmechanismen .................................. 70
6.4 Empirische studies: trends .................................................................................................................... 71
6.4.1 Oplossingen: “disconnectie” ......................................................................................................... 71
6.4.2 Televisiekijken en schoolprestaties: resultaten ............................................................................ 72
6.5 Televisiekijken en taal ........................................................................................................................... 72
6.5.1 Nieuwe media en taal ................................................................................................................... 72
6.6 Games en educatie................................................................................................................................ 73
7 Schriftelijk semesterexamen ................................................................................................................. 75
3
, 1 ALGEMENE INLEIDING MEDIA-EFFECTENONDERZOEK
Teksten:
- Les: Slater, Reinforcing Spirals model
- Les: Harris & Sanborn, Research and theory in mass communication: how are media studied
scientifically
- Les: sparks: scientific methods in communication research
- Valkenburg, Peter, five challenges for the future of media-effects
Voorbeelden van media effect studies
- “the batman effect”: improving perserverance in young children.
- Facebook use, envy and depression among college students: is facebook depressing?
- Reciprocal relationships between music television exposure and adolescents sexual behavior: role of
perceived peer norms.
1.1 GESCHIEDENIS MEDIA-EFFECTEN-ONDERZOEK
Cfr. Cursus Inleiding tot de Communicatiewetenschap: verschillende paradigma’s
1. Almacht van de media-paradigma (hypodermic needle, magic bullet, …) (DIRECT EFFECTS)
2. Beperkte effectenparadigma (Two-step-flow waarbij men vaststelde dat mensen tijdens
verkiezingstijd werden beinvloed door media, en zij op hun buurt anders mensen beinvloedde,
diffusie…) (CONDITIONAL EFFECTS)
3. Actieve publiek – U & G (GEZOCHTE EFFECTEN)
4. Langetermijneffecten (cultivatie die stelt dat mensen die veel tv kijken en blootgesteld worden aan bv.
geweld krijgen realiteit die deels aansluit bij tv realiteit, agenda setting, framing, zwijgspiraal…)
(CUMULATIVE EFFECTS)
5. Nieuwe media – nieuwe effecten? (EXPRESSION EFFECT) à heel veel van de oude theorieen worden
gerecupereerd, bv. agendasetting. Maar er zijn ook heel veel nieuwe invalshoeken bijgekomen, omdat
we zelf kunnen posten op social media à expressie-effecten, je beïnvloedt niet enkel je vrienden
maar ook jezelf, je gaat je consistent gaan gedragen naar hoe je jezelf voorsteld op sociale media
1.2 CLASSIFICATIE VAN MEDIA-EFFECTEN(ONDERZOEK)
Op welke manieren kan je media-effecten classificeren? Er zijn verschillende soorten criteria:
- Inhoud
- Termijn en duur
- Soort
- Direct versus indirect
- Niveau van het effect: individueel – maatschappelijk
- Bedoeld of onbedoeld
- Richting
- Verklarende mechanismen
1.2.1 INHOUD
Wat is de media-inhoud waarover het gaat? Media-effecten zijn het resultaat van blootstelling aan bepaalde
soorten inhoud.
4
0 INHOUDSOPGAVE
0 Inhoudsopgave ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Algemene inleiding media-effectenonderzoek ........................................................................................ 4
1.1 Geschiedenis media-effecten-onderzoek ................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Classificatie van media-effecten(onderzoek) .......................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Inhoud ............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.2 Termijn en duur .............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2.3 Soorten effecten ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.4 Directe/indirecte effecten ............................................................................................................ 10
1.2.5 Niveau van het effect .................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.6 Bedoeld of onbedoeld................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.7 Richting ......................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.8 Verklarende mechanismen ........................................................................................................... 12
1.2.9 Theorieën voor de verklaring van media-effecten (door cognitieve processen) .......................... 12
1.3 methoden van media-effecten onderzoek ............................................................................................ 13
1.3.1 Labo- experiment .......................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.2 veldonderzoek............................................................................................................................... 14
1.3.3 correlationeel onderzoek .............................................................................................................. 15
1.3.4 longitudinaal onderzoek ............................................................................................................... 17
1.3.5 meta-analyse................................................................................................................................. 18
2 Media en criminaliteit........................................................................................................................... 19
2.1 Inleiding ................................................................................................................................................ 19
2.2 een geboeid publiek? ............................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.1 Theoretisch model ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.2 Methode ....................................................................................................................................... 24
2.2.3 Resultaten ..................................................................................................................................... 25
2.3 (dis)functies van media voor gedetineerden ......................................................................................... 27
3 Media en seksualiteit ............................................................................................................................ 28
3.1 Seksualiteit in mainstream media ......................................................................................................... 28
3.1.1 Televisie ........................................................................................................................................ 28
3.1.2 Reclame......................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1.3 Videoclips ...................................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.4 Pers ............................................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.5 Social Media .................................................................................................................................. 31
3.2 effecten ................................................................................................................................................. 31
3.2.1 Media als seksuele voorlichter? .................................................................................................... 31
1
, 3.2.2 Media (televisie): “super peer” ..................................................................................................... 32
3.3 pornografie ........................................................................................................................................... 32
3.3.1 Inleiding ........................................................................................................................................ 32
3.3.2 Effecten ......................................................................................................................................... 33
3.4 bespreking tekst .................................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.1 Type mediaeffect .......................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.2 Theoretische achtergrond en hypothesen .................................................................................... 34
3.4.3 Methode ....................................................................................................................................... 35
3.4.4 Kritiek ............................................................................................................................................ 35
3.4.5 Resultaten ..................................................................................................................................... 35
3.4.6 Maatschappelijke relevantie ......................................................................................................... 35
4 Media en stereotypering ...................................................................................................................... 36
4.1 inleiding................................................................................................................................................. 36
4.2 Twee benaderingen............................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.1 sociaal cognitieve benadering ....................................................................................................... 36
4.2.2 culturele benadering ..................................................................................................................... 37
4.2.3 integratie van beide perspectieven .............................................................................................. 37
4.3 Stereotype als schema .......................................................................................................................... 38
4.3.1 Schema’s: soorten ......................................................................................................................... 38
4.3.2 Invloed van schema’s op nieuwe informatie ................................................................................ 39
4.3.3 Invloed van ervaring op bestaande schema’s ............................................................................... 40
4.4 assumpties over stereotypes ................................................................................................................. 40
4.5 functies van stereotypen ....................................................................................................................... 41
4.6 stereotypes meten ................................................................................................................................ 42
4.7 stereotiepe mediavoorstellingen........................................................................................................... 43
4.7.1 Effecten van (contra)stereotiepe mediavoorstellingen ................................................................ 43
4.7.2 Onderzoeksresultaten ................................................................................................................... 44
4.8 bespreking DIXON ................................................................................................................................. 45
4.8.1 Type media-effect ......................................................................................................................... 45
4.8.2 Theoretische achtergrond en hypothesen .................................................................................... 45
4.8.3 Methode ....................................................................................................................................... 45
4.8.4 Resultaten ..................................................................................................................................... 45
5 Media en gezondheid ........................................................................................................................... 46
5.1 Inleiding: keuze topics ........................................................................................................................... 46
5.1.1 Theory of Planned Behavior .......................................................................................................... 46
5.1.2 Prototype-Willingness ................................................................................................................... 47
5.2 Alcoholgerelateerde MEDIA-INHOUDEN & EFFECTEN OP (DETERMINANTEN VAN) ALCOHOLGEBRUIK
48
5.2.1 alcoholreclame .............................................................................................................................. 48
5.2.2 Film/TV .......................................................................................................................................... 50
5.2.3 Sociale media ................................................................................................................................ 52
5.3 Rookgerelateerde MEDIA-INHOUDEN & EFFECTEN OP (DETERMINANTEN VAN) ROOKGEDRAG ........ 53
2
, 5.3.1 Reclame......................................................................................................................................... 53
5.3.2 Film/TV .......................................................................................................................................... 54
5.4 Mediavoorstellingen van risicovol autorijden & effecten op (determinanten van) rijgedrag ............... 56
5.4.1 Film/Tv .......................................................................................................................................... 56
5.4.2 Racing games ................................................................................................................................ 57
5.5 Media-inhouden gerelateerd aan voeding en uiterlijk & effecten op (determinanten van) eetgedrag 57
5.5.1 Obesitas en anorexia..................................................................................................................... 58
5.5.2 Media en zwaarlijvigheid bij jongeren .......................................................................................... 58
5.5.3 Voedingsreclame........................................................................................................................... 58
5.5.4 Televisie ........................................................................................................................................ 59
5.5.5 Media en het vrouwelijk schoonheidsideaal................................................................................. 60
5.5.6 Media en het mannelijk schoonheidsideaal ................................................................................. 63
5.5.7 Social media .................................................................................................................................. 63
5.6 Artikel kritische analyse ........................................................................................................................ 65
6 Media en schoolprestaties .................................................................................................................... 67
6.1 Inleiding ................................................................................................................................................ 67
6.2 Televisiekijken en algemene schoolprestaties: theorieën ..................................................................... 67
6.3 Smartphonegebruik en schoolprestaties: theorieën / verklaringsmechanismen .................................. 70
6.4 Empirische studies: trends .................................................................................................................... 71
6.4.1 Oplossingen: “disconnectie” ......................................................................................................... 71
6.4.2 Televisiekijken en schoolprestaties: resultaten ............................................................................ 72
6.5 Televisiekijken en taal ........................................................................................................................... 72
6.5.1 Nieuwe media en taal ................................................................................................................... 72
6.6 Games en educatie................................................................................................................................ 73
7 Schriftelijk semesterexamen ................................................................................................................. 75
3
, 1 ALGEMENE INLEIDING MEDIA-EFFECTENONDERZOEK
Teksten:
- Les: Slater, Reinforcing Spirals model
- Les: Harris & Sanborn, Research and theory in mass communication: how are media studied
scientifically
- Les: sparks: scientific methods in communication research
- Valkenburg, Peter, five challenges for the future of media-effects
Voorbeelden van media effect studies
- “the batman effect”: improving perserverance in young children.
- Facebook use, envy and depression among college students: is facebook depressing?
- Reciprocal relationships between music television exposure and adolescents sexual behavior: role of
perceived peer norms.
1.1 GESCHIEDENIS MEDIA-EFFECTEN-ONDERZOEK
Cfr. Cursus Inleiding tot de Communicatiewetenschap: verschillende paradigma’s
1. Almacht van de media-paradigma (hypodermic needle, magic bullet, …) (DIRECT EFFECTS)
2. Beperkte effectenparadigma (Two-step-flow waarbij men vaststelde dat mensen tijdens
verkiezingstijd werden beinvloed door media, en zij op hun buurt anders mensen beinvloedde,
diffusie…) (CONDITIONAL EFFECTS)
3. Actieve publiek – U & G (GEZOCHTE EFFECTEN)
4. Langetermijneffecten (cultivatie die stelt dat mensen die veel tv kijken en blootgesteld worden aan bv.
geweld krijgen realiteit die deels aansluit bij tv realiteit, agenda setting, framing, zwijgspiraal…)
(CUMULATIVE EFFECTS)
5. Nieuwe media – nieuwe effecten? (EXPRESSION EFFECT) à heel veel van de oude theorieen worden
gerecupereerd, bv. agendasetting. Maar er zijn ook heel veel nieuwe invalshoeken bijgekomen, omdat
we zelf kunnen posten op social media à expressie-effecten, je beïnvloedt niet enkel je vrienden
maar ook jezelf, je gaat je consistent gaan gedragen naar hoe je jezelf voorsteld op sociale media
1.2 CLASSIFICATIE VAN MEDIA-EFFECTEN(ONDERZOEK)
Op welke manieren kan je media-effecten classificeren? Er zijn verschillende soorten criteria:
- Inhoud
- Termijn en duur
- Soort
- Direct versus indirect
- Niveau van het effect: individueel – maatschappelijk
- Bedoeld of onbedoeld
- Richting
- Verklarende mechanismen
1.2.1 INHOUD
Wat is de media-inhoud waarover het gaat? Media-effecten zijn het resultaat van blootstelling aan bepaalde
soorten inhoud.
4
