HOC1: introduction to scientific reasoning
1 Psychology is a way of thinking
1.1 Producing VS consuming research
1.1.1 Research producer & Research consumer
1.1.2 Examples importance of research consumer role
1.1.1.1 Example 1: PTSD workshop
She claims she doesn’t need a degree to give therapy (she followed workshops)
- Referred to scientific study that it works
- If you take a closer look it doesn’t
- Invited people who suffered from PTSS -> measured level before and after treatment ->
found a decrease -> ‘this works’
- 2 things stand out:
1. Small sample -> wrong conclusions, false positives,
2. No control group (worst experimental design)
- ! Lot of other explanations for the decrease (that you cant rule out if you
don’t have a control group)
1.1.1.2 Example 2: predict future
Critical mindset is essential
Not all published research is correct or robust (=stevig)
Replication crisis in psychology
9 experiments
Shows that people can predict future
Experimental design: give list of words to memorize – random words they need to write down -> ask
to recall higher likelihood of memorizing words they wrote down
Flipped around: Gave list of words -> memorized -> tell what you remember -> random selected
words from list gave them and write them down -> showed that words that remembered, there was a
higher chance that they would be randomly chosen by computer
Issues:
- 9 experiments: a lot more and they didnt show results at all – in some they did and those he
reported
- Tortured the data: didnt find anything -> added control variable, remove …, … -> als je dat
lang genoeg doet zal je altijd iets vinden
- Replication crisis in psychology: open science movements: we moeten de manier van onze
wetenschap veranderen om iets te doen aan replication crisis en zulke studies
1
,1.2 How scientists work (science based on…:)
1.2.1 Empiricism
= collect data to test certain theories/hypotheses
• Empirical method is based on data obtained through:
o Our senses (sight, hearing, touch)
o Instruments that assist our senses (thermometer, questionnaires, timer)
• Empiricists aim to do research in a systematic, rigorous, and replicable manner
o Systematic: collecting data the same structured systematic way with every participant
o Rigorous: thinking how I will collect data & be transparent about it
o Replicable: others are able to run the study again & if they find the same results or
not
• Empiricism is not based on own experiences, intuition, or authority figures
• Empirical approach leads to better studies
1.2.2 Test theories
1.1.1.3 Theory–Data cycle
= empirical cycle
There is a difference between exploratory (inductive) and
confirmatory (deductive) research!
! Cycle only applies to confirmatory/deductive approach
Confirmatory/deductive approach
• Start theory
• Set up study
• They need hypotheses
• Is data in line with hypotheses?
o Yes (extra support for theory)
o No (something is wrong with theory OR something is wrong with study design)
Exploratory/inductive approach
• Bij qualitative research
• Exploring believes, experiences
• Building theories based on the data but not confirming
1.1.1.4 Example deductive: cupboard theory vs contact comfort theory
Cupboard theory: attached to person who makes sure you survive
Contact comfort theory: attached because they give you comfort
Empirical cycle: theories tested -> study designed -> hypotheses -> collecting data -> conclusions
2
, • Characteristics of good theories
o Supported by data
o Falsifiable
▪ It is possible to disprove the model/theory
▪ If not: pseudoscience
o Parsimonious (“Occam’s razor”)
▪ Choose the simplest theory (if equally well explained)
• Examples of non-falsifiable theories:
o Facilitated communication threatment believers
▪ Idea: giving treatment assist with communication
▪ Whatever you find that disproves my theory I can find a explanation why its
still correct
▪ It will only work if you believe in it -> it becomes non falsifiable theory
o If youre interested: see book “De ongelovige Thomas heeft een punt”
• Theories are evaluated based on all available evidence
o A theory can never be “proven”, but it can be falsified
▪ One study that falsifies theory is enough to abandon a theory (in some cases)
▪ But we can never be 100% sure but we can falsify
o Replication is crucial
1.2.3 Scientists form a community
Merton’s scientific norms:
1. Universalism
o Everyone can do research regardless of your background (race, status, gender,…)
o As long as they follow scientific principles
2. Communality
o Results should be communicated with community
o Not for one company but available to general public
3. Disinterestedness
o Scientist should do research to improve knowledge/understanding – not getting
rich/famous
4. Organized scepticism
o Researchers work in a way that they have a critical approach towards eachothers
work (reviewers,…)
3
, 1.2.4 Fundamental & applied problems
Basic
• End goal is to expand our knowledge
Translational
• Knowledge and practical implication but quite abstract
Applied
• Real world application
We need (meestal) basic research before we can move on to applied research
1.2.5 Continuously evolving
Theories are continuously tested, modified, and falsified
Research triggers follow-up research (example: impact of colour on approach- and avoidance-
motivation in context (Meier et al., 2012))
• Theory: colour will be linked to motivation
o Red associated with danger/avoiding (traffic)
o Blue associated with approaching (traffic)
• Other study:
o It depends on context
o Romantic context -> approached
• 2 different groups
o 1: date -> showed pic of people they were going to date
o 2: intelligence interview
o Total: 4 groups
• Measured how quickly you’re walking
o Avoidance motivation: slower
o Approached motivation: faster
• Supports idea that context matters (bij dating rood sneller)
• Couldnt be replicated
o Theory falsified
4
1 Psychology is a way of thinking
1.1 Producing VS consuming research
1.1.1 Research producer & Research consumer
1.1.2 Examples importance of research consumer role
1.1.1.1 Example 1: PTSD workshop
She claims she doesn’t need a degree to give therapy (she followed workshops)
- Referred to scientific study that it works
- If you take a closer look it doesn’t
- Invited people who suffered from PTSS -> measured level before and after treatment ->
found a decrease -> ‘this works’
- 2 things stand out:
1. Small sample -> wrong conclusions, false positives,
2. No control group (worst experimental design)
- ! Lot of other explanations for the decrease (that you cant rule out if you
don’t have a control group)
1.1.1.2 Example 2: predict future
Critical mindset is essential
Not all published research is correct or robust (=stevig)
Replication crisis in psychology
9 experiments
Shows that people can predict future
Experimental design: give list of words to memorize – random words they need to write down -> ask
to recall higher likelihood of memorizing words they wrote down
Flipped around: Gave list of words -> memorized -> tell what you remember -> random selected
words from list gave them and write them down -> showed that words that remembered, there was a
higher chance that they would be randomly chosen by computer
Issues:
- 9 experiments: a lot more and they didnt show results at all – in some they did and those he
reported
- Tortured the data: didnt find anything -> added control variable, remove …, … -> als je dat
lang genoeg doet zal je altijd iets vinden
- Replication crisis in psychology: open science movements: we moeten de manier van onze
wetenschap veranderen om iets te doen aan replication crisis en zulke studies
1
,1.2 How scientists work (science based on…:)
1.2.1 Empiricism
= collect data to test certain theories/hypotheses
• Empirical method is based on data obtained through:
o Our senses (sight, hearing, touch)
o Instruments that assist our senses (thermometer, questionnaires, timer)
• Empiricists aim to do research in a systematic, rigorous, and replicable manner
o Systematic: collecting data the same structured systematic way with every participant
o Rigorous: thinking how I will collect data & be transparent about it
o Replicable: others are able to run the study again & if they find the same results or
not
• Empiricism is not based on own experiences, intuition, or authority figures
• Empirical approach leads to better studies
1.2.2 Test theories
1.1.1.3 Theory–Data cycle
= empirical cycle
There is a difference between exploratory (inductive) and
confirmatory (deductive) research!
! Cycle only applies to confirmatory/deductive approach
Confirmatory/deductive approach
• Start theory
• Set up study
• They need hypotheses
• Is data in line with hypotheses?
o Yes (extra support for theory)
o No (something is wrong with theory OR something is wrong with study design)
Exploratory/inductive approach
• Bij qualitative research
• Exploring believes, experiences
• Building theories based on the data but not confirming
1.1.1.4 Example deductive: cupboard theory vs contact comfort theory
Cupboard theory: attached to person who makes sure you survive
Contact comfort theory: attached because they give you comfort
Empirical cycle: theories tested -> study designed -> hypotheses -> collecting data -> conclusions
2
, • Characteristics of good theories
o Supported by data
o Falsifiable
▪ It is possible to disprove the model/theory
▪ If not: pseudoscience
o Parsimonious (“Occam’s razor”)
▪ Choose the simplest theory (if equally well explained)
• Examples of non-falsifiable theories:
o Facilitated communication threatment believers
▪ Idea: giving treatment assist with communication
▪ Whatever you find that disproves my theory I can find a explanation why its
still correct
▪ It will only work if you believe in it -> it becomes non falsifiable theory
o If youre interested: see book “De ongelovige Thomas heeft een punt”
• Theories are evaluated based on all available evidence
o A theory can never be “proven”, but it can be falsified
▪ One study that falsifies theory is enough to abandon a theory (in some cases)
▪ But we can never be 100% sure but we can falsify
o Replication is crucial
1.2.3 Scientists form a community
Merton’s scientific norms:
1. Universalism
o Everyone can do research regardless of your background (race, status, gender,…)
o As long as they follow scientific principles
2. Communality
o Results should be communicated with community
o Not for one company but available to general public
3. Disinterestedness
o Scientist should do research to improve knowledge/understanding – not getting
rich/famous
4. Organized scepticism
o Researchers work in a way that they have a critical approach towards eachothers
work (reviewers,…)
3
, 1.2.4 Fundamental & applied problems
Basic
• End goal is to expand our knowledge
Translational
• Knowledge and practical implication but quite abstract
Applied
• Real world application
We need (meestal) basic research before we can move on to applied research
1.2.5 Continuously evolving
Theories are continuously tested, modified, and falsified
Research triggers follow-up research (example: impact of colour on approach- and avoidance-
motivation in context (Meier et al., 2012))
• Theory: colour will be linked to motivation
o Red associated with danger/avoiding (traffic)
o Blue associated with approaching (traffic)
• Other study:
o It depends on context
o Romantic context -> approached
• 2 different groups
o 1: date -> showed pic of people they were going to date
o 2: intelligence interview
o Total: 4 groups
• Measured how quickly you’re walking
o Avoidance motivation: slower
o Approached motivation: faster
• Supports idea that context matters (bij dating rood sneller)
• Couldnt be replicated
o Theory falsified
4
