Grammar unit 2
To tell versus to say
With the verb to tell, you always mention the person that you are talking to.
He told me that he was afraid.
With the verb to say, you have two options: mention the person behind the preposition
‘to’ or leave both out completely.
He said to me that he was afraid.
He said that he was afraid.
Reported speech
To report what someone said, we use direct or indirect speech.
In indirect speech, we report what someone says but we do not repeat their exact
words. Their words have really become part of a new sentence.
to report… direct speech indirect speech
a statement -> that-clause Jordan: ‘I love it’ Jordan says (that) he loves
it.
a yes / no question -> if or Zora: ‘Do we get it?’ Zora asks if they get it.
whether (or not)
a question word question -> Marie: ‘Why is it so Marie wonders why it’s so
question word scary?’ scary.
an imperative -> to + inf. or Emma: ‘Look it up!’ Emma tells someone to
must / have to / need to / look it up.
should
When the reporting verb is a past tense, backshift of the verb occurs in the reported
clause, especially in formal writing. Verbs in the present tenses in the reported clause
shift back to the corresponding past tense. Verbs in the past tenses in the reported
clause shift back to the corresponding perfect tense.
backshift direct speech indirect speech
present simple -> past ‘My name is Jordan.’ He said his name was
simple Jordan.
present continuous -> past ‘I’m working on a film.’ He told us that he was
continuous working on a film.
present perfect -> past ‘I’ve killed two people.’ He told me that he had
perfect killed two people.
modals: ‘You must believe me. I can He said that we had to
can -> could show you their bodies. You believe him, that he could
must / have to -> had to will be surprised.’ show us their bodies and
will -> would that we would be surprised.
past simple -> past perfect ‘I stabbed the victims.’ He said that he had stabbed
the victims.
past continuous -> past ‘They were sleeping at that He told them that the
continuous time.’ victims had been sleeping.
In informal English, or when the speaker feels that what was said is still true, no
backshift occurs.
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To tell versus to say
With the verb to tell, you always mention the person that you are talking to.
He told me that he was afraid.
With the verb to say, you have two options: mention the person behind the preposition
‘to’ or leave both out completely.
He said to me that he was afraid.
He said that he was afraid.
Reported speech
To report what someone said, we use direct or indirect speech.
In indirect speech, we report what someone says but we do not repeat their exact
words. Their words have really become part of a new sentence.
to report… direct speech indirect speech
a statement -> that-clause Jordan: ‘I love it’ Jordan says (that) he loves
it.
a yes / no question -> if or Zora: ‘Do we get it?’ Zora asks if they get it.
whether (or not)
a question word question -> Marie: ‘Why is it so Marie wonders why it’s so
question word scary?’ scary.
an imperative -> to + inf. or Emma: ‘Look it up!’ Emma tells someone to
must / have to / need to / look it up.
should
When the reporting verb is a past tense, backshift of the verb occurs in the reported
clause, especially in formal writing. Verbs in the present tenses in the reported clause
shift back to the corresponding past tense. Verbs in the past tenses in the reported
clause shift back to the corresponding perfect tense.
backshift direct speech indirect speech
present simple -> past ‘My name is Jordan.’ He said his name was
simple Jordan.
present continuous -> past ‘I’m working on a film.’ He told us that he was
continuous working on a film.
present perfect -> past ‘I’ve killed two people.’ He told me that he had
perfect killed two people.
modals: ‘You must believe me. I can He said that we had to
can -> could show you their bodies. You believe him, that he could
must / have to -> had to will be surprised.’ show us their bodies and
will -> would that we would be surprised.
past simple -> past perfect ‘I stabbed the victims.’ He said that he had stabbed
the victims.
past continuous -> past ‘They were sleeping at that He told them that the
continuous time.’ victims had been sleeping.
In informal English, or when the speaker feels that what was said is still true, no
backshift occurs.
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