Media-effecten
Contents
1. Introductie: wat zijn media-effecten? ........................................................................................ 6
1.1. Doelen van de wetenschap ................................................................................................ 6
1.2. Hoe worden die doelen bereikt? ......................................................................................... 6
1.2.1. Theorie ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.2. Falisifieerbaarheid (= je moet op voorhand kunnen zeggen welke bevindingen ervoor
zorgen dat de hypothese fout is)................................................................................................ 6
1.2.3. Creativiteit ................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.4. Generaliseerbaarheid .................................................................................................. 7
1.2.5. Objectieve waarheid ontdekken .................................................................................. 7
1.2.6. Sceptisch blijven .......................................................................................................... 7
1.3. Toekomst van media-effecten onderzoek........................................................................... 7
2. Agenda setting .......................................................................................................................... 8
2.1. Waarover we denken ......................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Historische context ............................................................................................................ 8
2.2.1. 425 latere studies (ZOEK ZELF HIER EEN VOORBEELD VOOR EXAMEN:
waterprijzen, baby Pia) .............................................................................................................. 9
2.3. Acapulco typology ............................................................................................................. 9
2.4. Hoe we denken over (tweede niveau: kenmerken) ............................................................ 10
2.5. Need for orientation (NFO) ............................................................................................... 10
2.6. Consequenties van agendasetting .................................................................................... 11
2.7. Who sets the agenda......................................................................................................... 11
3. Framing .................................................................................................................................... 11
3.1. Disciplinaire oorsprong ..................................................................................................... 11
3.2. Frames en verwante, maar andere processen ................................................................... 12
3.3. Framing in communicatieonderzoek ................................................................................. 14
3.3.1. Framing in afhankelijke benadering .......................................................................... 14
3.3.2. Framing als onafhankelijke variabele: frame setting.................................................. 14
3.4. Applicability vertelt niet het hele verhaal! ......................................................................... 15
3.5. Problemen ........................................................................................................................ 15
3.6. Overzicht van hoofdstuk ................................................................................................... 17
4. Framing toepassing .................................................................................................................. 18
4.1. A content analytical study on celebrities, influencers and athlethes’ political content on
Instagram ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.1. Background .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.2. Youth and famous figures.......................................................................................... 18
4.1.3. Theoretical framework ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1
, 4.1.4. What is political? .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.5. Methods .................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.6. Results.......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.7. Conclusion .................................................................................................................20
4.2. Instagram Influencers as Superwomen: Influencers’ Lifestyle Presentations Observed
Through Framing Analysis ............................................................................................................ 21
4.2.1. Achtergrond .............................................................................................................. 21
4.2.2. Onderzoeksdoel ........................................................................................................ 21
4.2.3. Methode.................................................................................................................... 21
4.2.4. Resultaten ................................................................................................................. 21
4.2.5. Discussie.................................................................................................................... 23
4.3. Framing in advertenties met niet-geïdealiseerde modellen .............................................. 23
4.3.1. Theoretische achtergrond rond niet-geïdealiseerde modellen .................................. 23
4.3.2. Hoe framing bij niet-geïdealiseerde modellen te onderzoeken .................................24
5. Cultivaltietheorie ......................................................................................................................25
5.1. Growing up with television ................................................................................................ 25
5.1.1. Televisie in de maatschappij ......................................................................................25
5.1.2. Methoden van cultivatie analyse .............................................................................. 26
5.1.3. Resultaten uit cultivatieonderzoek ............................................................................ 27
5.1.4. Hoe werkt het? .......................................................................................................... 27
5.1.5. Keywords binnen cultivatie .......................................................................................28
5.1.6. Internationale cultivatie ............................................................................................28
5.1.7. Recente (?) resultaten uit cultivatie-onderzoek .........................................................28
5.1.8. Cultivatie en het digitale tijdperk .............................................................................. 29
5.2. Social Cognitive Process model toegepast op cultivatie ................................................... 29
5.2.1. Cognitive Process Models ......................................................................................... 29
5.2.2. Social cognition theory .............................................................................................. 30
5.2.3. Wat zijn de gevolgen van verhoogde toegankelijkheid .............................................. 31
5.2.4. Studies rond cognitieve processen ............................................................................ 32
5.2.5. First order model ....................................................................................................... 32
5.2.6. Kleine effecten in cultivatie-onderzoek ..................................................................... 34
5.2.7. Second order model .................................................................................................. 35
6. Priming theory .......................................................................................................................... 36
6.1. Priming is… ....................................................................................................................... 36
6.2. Twee centrale priming domeinen...................................................................................... 36
6.3. Modellen die priming uitleggen ........................................................................................ 38
6.3.1. Violence .................................................................................................................... 39
6.3.2. Politiek ...................................................................................................................... 39
2
, 6.4. Mental models ..................................................................................................................40
7. Uses and Gratifications theory .................................................................................................. 41
7.1. Inleiding ............................................................................................................................ 41
7.1.1. Recap ........................................................................................................................ 41
7.1.2. Context: Uses & Gratifications Theory ....................................................................... 41
7.1.3. Psychologisch perspectief ......................................................................................... 41
7.1.4. Functionele benadering ............................................................................................. 41
7.2. Uses- and gratifications paradigma ...................................................................................42
8. Elaboration likelihoud ...............................................................................................................42
8.1. Attitudes ...........................................................................................................................42
8.1.1. Communication/persuasion matrix model ................................................................. 43
8.1.2. Cognitieve response theory ....................................................................................... 43
8.2. Elaboration likelihood model ........................................................................................... 44
8.2.1. Centrale route .......................................................................................................... 44
8.2.2. Perifere route ............................................................................................................45
8.2.3. Assumpties ................................................................................................................45
8.2.4. Commentaar: dezelfde elementen kunnen verschillende rollen spelen .................... 48
9. Social Cognitive en Learning Theory........................................................................................ 49
9.1.1. In het kort uitgelegd ................................................................................................. 49
9.2. Agentic perspective ......................................................................................................... 49
9.3. Mechanismen van observational learning .........................................................................50
9.4. Abstract modeling ............................................................................................................50
9.5. Motivational effects van observational learning ................................................................ 50
9.6. Implicaties voor methode ................................................................................................. 51
9.7. Dual link versus Multipattern flow of influence.................................................................. 51
9.8. Media-effecten en SCT ..................................................................................................... 51
9.9. De toekomst van SCT........................................................................................................ 51
9.10. Take away .....................................................................................................................52
10. Individuele verschillen & third person effect .........................................................................52
10.1. Individuele verschillen .......................................................................................................52
10.1.1. Enjoyment/emotionele respons op media .................................................................52
10.1.2. Media als expressie van individuele verschillen .......................................................... 53
10.1.3. Selectieve blootstelling aan en perceptie van mediaboodschappen .......................... 53
10.1.4. Individuele verschillen en effecten op de kijker/gebruiker ......................................... 53
10.2. Third-person effect (zie hoofdstuk 12)...........................................................................54
10.2.1. Onderzoek ................................................................................................................54
10.2.2. Bestaat dit effect echt?.............................................................................................. 54
10.2.3. Verklarende mechanismen ........................................................................................54
3
, 10.2.4. Is het effect conditioneel ........................................................................................... 55
10.2.5. Komt het bij iedereen voor? ...................................................................................... 55
10.2.6. Wat zijn de gevolgen?................................................................................................ 55
11. Onderzoeksmethoden in media-effecten onderzoek ............................................................ 55
11.1. Korte recap ....................................................................................................................... 55
11.2. Onderzoeksmethoden in media-effecten onderzoek ........................................................ 55
11.2.1. Inhoudsanalyse (= describe) ......................................................................................56
11.2.2. Survey (= onderzoek naar MENSEN) .........................................................................56
11.2.3. Experiment ................................................................................................................58
12. Effecten van digitale games (NEGATIEF EFFECTEN) ............................................................59
12.1. Gamegeweld & agressie....................................................................................................59
12.2. Gameverslaving ........................................................................................................... 60
12.2.1. Verslaving aan games ............................................................................................... 60
12.2.2. TedxTalk ‘gameverslaving’ ........................................................................................ 61
12.3. Seksuele game-inhoud...................................................................................................... 61
12.3.1. Theoretische perspectieven – seksuele objectivering ................................................ 61
12.3.2. Theoretische perspectieven – Zelfobjectivering ........................................................ 61
12.3.3. Seksuele gamecultuur en –inhouden ........................................................................ 62
12.4. Stereotypes in games ................................................................................................... 62
12.4.1. TV-sitcoms & stereotypes ......................................................................................... 63
12.4.2. Games – stereotype representaties ........................................................................... 63
12.4.3. Games – Afro-Amerikaanse representaties ............................................................... 63
12.4.4. Games – Arabische representaties ............................................................................ 63
12.4.5. Games – Italiaanse representaties ............................................................................ 64
12.4.6. Effecten van stereotyperende game-inhouden ........................................................ 64
13. Effecten van digitale games (POSITIEVE EFFECTEN) .......................................................... 64
13.1. Domein 1: “Cognitieve voordelen” ................................................................................... 64
13.2. Domein 2: “Motivationele voordelen” ...............................................................................65
13.3. Domein 3: “Emotionele voordelen” ...................................................................................65
13.4. Domein 4: “Sociale voordelen”..........................................................................................65
13.5. Hedonische ervaringen .....................................................................................................65
13.6. Eudaimonische ervaringen ............................................................................................... 66
13.6.1. Narratief ................................................................................................................... 66
13.6.2. Mechanics ................................................................................................................ 66
13.6.3. Sociale context .......................................................................................................... 67
13.6.4. Studies ...................................................................................................................... 67
13.6.5. Effecten .................................................................................................................... 69
14. Gastcollege: jongeren en geseksualiseerde media ............................................................... 69
4
Contents
1. Introductie: wat zijn media-effecten? ........................................................................................ 6
1.1. Doelen van de wetenschap ................................................................................................ 6
1.2. Hoe worden die doelen bereikt? ......................................................................................... 6
1.2.1. Theorie ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.2. Falisifieerbaarheid (= je moet op voorhand kunnen zeggen welke bevindingen ervoor
zorgen dat de hypothese fout is)................................................................................................ 6
1.2.3. Creativiteit ................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.4. Generaliseerbaarheid .................................................................................................. 7
1.2.5. Objectieve waarheid ontdekken .................................................................................. 7
1.2.6. Sceptisch blijven .......................................................................................................... 7
1.3. Toekomst van media-effecten onderzoek........................................................................... 7
2. Agenda setting .......................................................................................................................... 8
2.1. Waarover we denken ......................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Historische context ............................................................................................................ 8
2.2.1. 425 latere studies (ZOEK ZELF HIER EEN VOORBEELD VOOR EXAMEN:
waterprijzen, baby Pia) .............................................................................................................. 9
2.3. Acapulco typology ............................................................................................................. 9
2.4. Hoe we denken over (tweede niveau: kenmerken) ............................................................ 10
2.5. Need for orientation (NFO) ............................................................................................... 10
2.6. Consequenties van agendasetting .................................................................................... 11
2.7. Who sets the agenda......................................................................................................... 11
3. Framing .................................................................................................................................... 11
3.1. Disciplinaire oorsprong ..................................................................................................... 11
3.2. Frames en verwante, maar andere processen ................................................................... 12
3.3. Framing in communicatieonderzoek ................................................................................. 14
3.3.1. Framing in afhankelijke benadering .......................................................................... 14
3.3.2. Framing als onafhankelijke variabele: frame setting.................................................. 14
3.4. Applicability vertelt niet het hele verhaal! ......................................................................... 15
3.5. Problemen ........................................................................................................................ 15
3.6. Overzicht van hoofdstuk ................................................................................................... 17
4. Framing toepassing .................................................................................................................. 18
4.1. A content analytical study on celebrities, influencers and athlethes’ political content on
Instagram ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.1. Background .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.2. Youth and famous figures.......................................................................................... 18
4.1.3. Theoretical framework ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1
, 4.1.4. What is political? .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.5. Methods .................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.6. Results.......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.7. Conclusion .................................................................................................................20
4.2. Instagram Influencers as Superwomen: Influencers’ Lifestyle Presentations Observed
Through Framing Analysis ............................................................................................................ 21
4.2.1. Achtergrond .............................................................................................................. 21
4.2.2. Onderzoeksdoel ........................................................................................................ 21
4.2.3. Methode.................................................................................................................... 21
4.2.4. Resultaten ................................................................................................................. 21
4.2.5. Discussie.................................................................................................................... 23
4.3. Framing in advertenties met niet-geïdealiseerde modellen .............................................. 23
4.3.1. Theoretische achtergrond rond niet-geïdealiseerde modellen .................................. 23
4.3.2. Hoe framing bij niet-geïdealiseerde modellen te onderzoeken .................................24
5. Cultivaltietheorie ......................................................................................................................25
5.1. Growing up with television ................................................................................................ 25
5.1.1. Televisie in de maatschappij ......................................................................................25
5.1.2. Methoden van cultivatie analyse .............................................................................. 26
5.1.3. Resultaten uit cultivatieonderzoek ............................................................................ 27
5.1.4. Hoe werkt het? .......................................................................................................... 27
5.1.5. Keywords binnen cultivatie .......................................................................................28
5.1.6. Internationale cultivatie ............................................................................................28
5.1.7. Recente (?) resultaten uit cultivatie-onderzoek .........................................................28
5.1.8. Cultivatie en het digitale tijdperk .............................................................................. 29
5.2. Social Cognitive Process model toegepast op cultivatie ................................................... 29
5.2.1. Cognitive Process Models ......................................................................................... 29
5.2.2. Social cognition theory .............................................................................................. 30
5.2.3. Wat zijn de gevolgen van verhoogde toegankelijkheid .............................................. 31
5.2.4. Studies rond cognitieve processen ............................................................................ 32
5.2.5. First order model ....................................................................................................... 32
5.2.6. Kleine effecten in cultivatie-onderzoek ..................................................................... 34
5.2.7. Second order model .................................................................................................. 35
6. Priming theory .......................................................................................................................... 36
6.1. Priming is… ....................................................................................................................... 36
6.2. Twee centrale priming domeinen...................................................................................... 36
6.3. Modellen die priming uitleggen ........................................................................................ 38
6.3.1. Violence .................................................................................................................... 39
6.3.2. Politiek ...................................................................................................................... 39
2
, 6.4. Mental models ..................................................................................................................40
7. Uses and Gratifications theory .................................................................................................. 41
7.1. Inleiding ............................................................................................................................ 41
7.1.1. Recap ........................................................................................................................ 41
7.1.2. Context: Uses & Gratifications Theory ....................................................................... 41
7.1.3. Psychologisch perspectief ......................................................................................... 41
7.1.4. Functionele benadering ............................................................................................. 41
7.2. Uses- and gratifications paradigma ...................................................................................42
8. Elaboration likelihoud ...............................................................................................................42
8.1. Attitudes ...........................................................................................................................42
8.1.1. Communication/persuasion matrix model ................................................................. 43
8.1.2. Cognitieve response theory ....................................................................................... 43
8.2. Elaboration likelihood model ........................................................................................... 44
8.2.1. Centrale route .......................................................................................................... 44
8.2.2. Perifere route ............................................................................................................45
8.2.3. Assumpties ................................................................................................................45
8.2.4. Commentaar: dezelfde elementen kunnen verschillende rollen spelen .................... 48
9. Social Cognitive en Learning Theory........................................................................................ 49
9.1.1. In het kort uitgelegd ................................................................................................. 49
9.2. Agentic perspective ......................................................................................................... 49
9.3. Mechanismen van observational learning .........................................................................50
9.4. Abstract modeling ............................................................................................................50
9.5. Motivational effects van observational learning ................................................................ 50
9.6. Implicaties voor methode ................................................................................................. 51
9.7. Dual link versus Multipattern flow of influence.................................................................. 51
9.8. Media-effecten en SCT ..................................................................................................... 51
9.9. De toekomst van SCT........................................................................................................ 51
9.10. Take away .....................................................................................................................52
10. Individuele verschillen & third person effect .........................................................................52
10.1. Individuele verschillen .......................................................................................................52
10.1.1. Enjoyment/emotionele respons op media .................................................................52
10.1.2. Media als expressie van individuele verschillen .......................................................... 53
10.1.3. Selectieve blootstelling aan en perceptie van mediaboodschappen .......................... 53
10.1.4. Individuele verschillen en effecten op de kijker/gebruiker ......................................... 53
10.2. Third-person effect (zie hoofdstuk 12)...........................................................................54
10.2.1. Onderzoek ................................................................................................................54
10.2.2. Bestaat dit effect echt?.............................................................................................. 54
10.2.3. Verklarende mechanismen ........................................................................................54
3
, 10.2.4. Is het effect conditioneel ........................................................................................... 55
10.2.5. Komt het bij iedereen voor? ...................................................................................... 55
10.2.6. Wat zijn de gevolgen?................................................................................................ 55
11. Onderzoeksmethoden in media-effecten onderzoek ............................................................ 55
11.1. Korte recap ....................................................................................................................... 55
11.2. Onderzoeksmethoden in media-effecten onderzoek ........................................................ 55
11.2.1. Inhoudsanalyse (= describe) ......................................................................................56
11.2.2. Survey (= onderzoek naar MENSEN) .........................................................................56
11.2.3. Experiment ................................................................................................................58
12. Effecten van digitale games (NEGATIEF EFFECTEN) ............................................................59
12.1. Gamegeweld & agressie....................................................................................................59
12.2. Gameverslaving ........................................................................................................... 60
12.2.1. Verslaving aan games ............................................................................................... 60
12.2.2. TedxTalk ‘gameverslaving’ ........................................................................................ 61
12.3. Seksuele game-inhoud...................................................................................................... 61
12.3.1. Theoretische perspectieven – seksuele objectivering ................................................ 61
12.3.2. Theoretische perspectieven – Zelfobjectivering ........................................................ 61
12.3.3. Seksuele gamecultuur en –inhouden ........................................................................ 62
12.4. Stereotypes in games ................................................................................................... 62
12.4.1. TV-sitcoms & stereotypes ......................................................................................... 63
12.4.2. Games – stereotype representaties ........................................................................... 63
12.4.3. Games – Afro-Amerikaanse representaties ............................................................... 63
12.4.4. Games – Arabische representaties ............................................................................ 63
12.4.5. Games – Italiaanse representaties ............................................................................ 64
12.4.6. Effecten van stereotyperende game-inhouden ........................................................ 64
13. Effecten van digitale games (POSITIEVE EFFECTEN) .......................................................... 64
13.1. Domein 1: “Cognitieve voordelen” ................................................................................... 64
13.2. Domein 2: “Motivationele voordelen” ...............................................................................65
13.3. Domein 3: “Emotionele voordelen” ...................................................................................65
13.4. Domein 4: “Sociale voordelen”..........................................................................................65
13.5. Hedonische ervaringen .....................................................................................................65
13.6. Eudaimonische ervaringen ............................................................................................... 66
13.6.1. Narratief ................................................................................................................... 66
13.6.2. Mechanics ................................................................................................................ 66
13.6.3. Sociale context .......................................................................................................... 67
13.6.4. Studies ...................................................................................................................... 67
13.6.5. Effecten .................................................................................................................... 69
14. Gastcollege: jongeren en geseksualiseerde media ............................................................... 69
4
