INTRODUCTION: WHY BELGIUM?
CHAPTER 1: THE CURIOUS CASE OF BELGIUM
Characteristics
→ 3 national languages: German, Dutch & French
Governments
→ 1 federal government, 3 regions each with a government, 3
communities based on language
Problem
→ Overlapping governments ruling over 1 region
→ Ex. Brussels
Ceci (n’) est (pas) un pays?
→ Caught between realism and surrealism
→ Caught between mockery and international praise
- Subject of ridicule
Ridicule in the broad sense & in Belgium itself
Examples: google search
▪ why is Belgium a country?
▪ Why is Belgium a flawed democracy?
▪ Isn’t Belgium too complex?
Belgium has divided and decentralized itself
▪ Belgium has hollowed out itself
- Leader by example/ source of inspiration
Praised for the art of compromise, the art of overcoming
CHAPTER 2: ABOUT THIS COURSE
Contents of the course
- Interdisciplinary
Focus on historical, political and sociological features
Past developments + present characteristics + future
prospects
- Builds on prior knowledge from introduction to political
science
Aims of the course
- Gain insights to Belgium’s:
Complex social divisions and the pacification of conflicts
Political history and federalization process
State structure and political institutions
▪ Parties, electoral system, parliament and government
, Policy-making procedures
Relevance and role in international politics
- Critically apply these insights
To current debates about Belgium’s democratic governance and state structure
Lectures
- Email:
- Practical matters:
CHAPTER 3: BELGIUM, WHY BOTHER?
3.1 THE PROBLEM: A DIVIDED SOCIETY
Since independence in 1830: a divided society
Three traditional cleavages
Religious cleavage Socio-economic Linguistic cleavage
cleavage
Characteristics Catholicism vs. Capital vs. labour Dutch- vs. French-
secularism Industrialization & speakers
Church vs. emergence of labor
liberal/neutral movement
Context Oldest cleavage of End of 19th C After WWII
the country
Conflict matters → Design of the → Right to vote → Privileged position
young → Better wages and of French as official
independent work conditions language
state in 1830 → Welfare state: (-> movements)
→ Separation health insurance, → Cultural-linguistic
between church pensions autonomy
and state → Socio-economic
→ Organization of autonomy
educational → State reform
system
Relevance today → Less important → Trade unions → Despite 6 state
due to → Employer’s reforms: persistent
secularization organization centrifugal
→ However: moral- → Social dialogue tendencies
ethical issues, → Confederalism? Re-
integration federalisation?
- Institutionalized through processes of ‘pillarization’
Cleavages are the main cause of political instability in Belgium
Institutionalisation or pillarization
= creation of a dense networks of organizations that belong to the same subculture and that
almost fully encapsulate its members. It is mostly based on the social and religious cleavage.
- Population is divided in to pillars & subpillars
, Catholic, socialist and liberal pillar
Multitude of organizations
Overlapping memberships
Provide services ‘from cradle to the grave’
Ex. youth movements, marching bands, sports clubs,
- Depillarization
people more individual & don’t really care anymore
still visible and relevant today
- examples
catholic pillar: KLJ, KSA, Gezinsbond, Dexia
Socialist pillar: GO! Schools, ULB, VUB
Liberal pillar: GO! Schools, ULB, VUB, HLN
Coinciding or cross cutting
- Coinciding cleavages
Cleavages overlap and reinforce each other
Increases polarization
Ex. north is liberal Dutch and south is conservative French
- Cross cutting cleavages
Cleavages run across each other and internally divides segments
Acts as stabilizing factor
▪ Not always the same ‘opponent’
▪ Easier to compromise
Ex. socialist movement in the whole country but divided by language
- Belgium
Historically characterized by cross-cutting cleavages
▪ Ex. traditional pillars are built on socio-economic and religious cleavage
Linguistic cleavage runs through it
Overlap between cleavages
▪ Catholic pillar stronger in Flanders
Threats
- Deep + institutionalized divisions
Leads to more vulnerable democracy
Societal segregation into separate worlds
Lack of cross-cleavage contacts
Mobilization of electoral support for demands that are
hard to reconcile
Centrifugal logic
Risk of potential immobilism and instability
→ How to cope with these divisions and make the country governable?
, 3.2 THE SOLUTION: CONSIOCIATIONAL DEMOCRACY
Consociational democracy (Lijphart)
= set of practices that allow divided societies to survive
Basic principals
1. Power-sharing at the elite level
Spirit of accommodation between leaders
▪ Want to find common solution and hear each other out
▪ We do not use majority techniques
Grand coalition, proportionally, mutual veto
2. Segmental autonomy
allow (and finance) segments to organize life according to own principles
▪ Ex. healthcare got autonomy to provide services for their citizens, education
▪ Later also for linguistic communities
Advantage: no need for 1 size fits all approach
Disadvantage: further reinforces segmentation
A textbook example
Belgium can legitimately claim to be one of the most thorough examples of consociational
democracy” (Lijphart, 1981: 1)
Since WW1: when a political crisis arises
→ Leaders of mean social segments (party leaders) try to reach an agreement
1. Delicate ‘compromis à la Belge’ for common policies (= power-sharing)
2. More autonomy to segments for own policies and services (segmental autonomy)
- 1918: The pact of Loppem
Can be considered the start of the Belgian consociationalism
Aftermath of WWI
▪ Hit hard by WWI, economy low, high unemployment,
▪ threat of communism: October revolution in Russia 1917
▪ growing labor movement
King Albert gathers party leaders to discuss reforms and bridge divisions in three-
party government
▪ The 3 political parties: Catholics, socialists & liberals to discuss the deep
divisions
▪ wants to avoid revolution
▪ in castle of Loppen
Several concessions for (earlier too) ‘radical’ demands of socialists
▪ Electoral system reform, (one man, one vote) even if not allowed by the
constitution
▪ Expansion of right to strike
▪ Recognition of Dutch as an official language
▪ Socialist win a lot of votes, catholic lose a lot -> from now on, coalition
governments are the norm
CHAPTER 1: THE CURIOUS CASE OF BELGIUM
Characteristics
→ 3 national languages: German, Dutch & French
Governments
→ 1 federal government, 3 regions each with a government, 3
communities based on language
Problem
→ Overlapping governments ruling over 1 region
→ Ex. Brussels
Ceci (n’) est (pas) un pays?
→ Caught between realism and surrealism
→ Caught between mockery and international praise
- Subject of ridicule
Ridicule in the broad sense & in Belgium itself
Examples: google search
▪ why is Belgium a country?
▪ Why is Belgium a flawed democracy?
▪ Isn’t Belgium too complex?
Belgium has divided and decentralized itself
▪ Belgium has hollowed out itself
- Leader by example/ source of inspiration
Praised for the art of compromise, the art of overcoming
CHAPTER 2: ABOUT THIS COURSE
Contents of the course
- Interdisciplinary
Focus on historical, political and sociological features
Past developments + present characteristics + future
prospects
- Builds on prior knowledge from introduction to political
science
Aims of the course
- Gain insights to Belgium’s:
Complex social divisions and the pacification of conflicts
Political history and federalization process
State structure and political institutions
▪ Parties, electoral system, parliament and government
, Policy-making procedures
Relevance and role in international politics
- Critically apply these insights
To current debates about Belgium’s democratic governance and state structure
Lectures
- Email:
- Practical matters:
CHAPTER 3: BELGIUM, WHY BOTHER?
3.1 THE PROBLEM: A DIVIDED SOCIETY
Since independence in 1830: a divided society
Three traditional cleavages
Religious cleavage Socio-economic Linguistic cleavage
cleavage
Characteristics Catholicism vs. Capital vs. labour Dutch- vs. French-
secularism Industrialization & speakers
Church vs. emergence of labor
liberal/neutral movement
Context Oldest cleavage of End of 19th C After WWII
the country
Conflict matters → Design of the → Right to vote → Privileged position
young → Better wages and of French as official
independent work conditions language
state in 1830 → Welfare state: (-> movements)
→ Separation health insurance, → Cultural-linguistic
between church pensions autonomy
and state → Socio-economic
→ Organization of autonomy
educational → State reform
system
Relevance today → Less important → Trade unions → Despite 6 state
due to → Employer’s reforms: persistent
secularization organization centrifugal
→ However: moral- → Social dialogue tendencies
ethical issues, → Confederalism? Re-
integration federalisation?
- Institutionalized through processes of ‘pillarization’
Cleavages are the main cause of political instability in Belgium
Institutionalisation or pillarization
= creation of a dense networks of organizations that belong to the same subculture and that
almost fully encapsulate its members. It is mostly based on the social and religious cleavage.
- Population is divided in to pillars & subpillars
, Catholic, socialist and liberal pillar
Multitude of organizations
Overlapping memberships
Provide services ‘from cradle to the grave’
Ex. youth movements, marching bands, sports clubs,
- Depillarization
people more individual & don’t really care anymore
still visible and relevant today
- examples
catholic pillar: KLJ, KSA, Gezinsbond, Dexia
Socialist pillar: GO! Schools, ULB, VUB
Liberal pillar: GO! Schools, ULB, VUB, HLN
Coinciding or cross cutting
- Coinciding cleavages
Cleavages overlap and reinforce each other
Increases polarization
Ex. north is liberal Dutch and south is conservative French
- Cross cutting cleavages
Cleavages run across each other and internally divides segments
Acts as stabilizing factor
▪ Not always the same ‘opponent’
▪ Easier to compromise
Ex. socialist movement in the whole country but divided by language
- Belgium
Historically characterized by cross-cutting cleavages
▪ Ex. traditional pillars are built on socio-economic and religious cleavage
Linguistic cleavage runs through it
Overlap between cleavages
▪ Catholic pillar stronger in Flanders
Threats
- Deep + institutionalized divisions
Leads to more vulnerable democracy
Societal segregation into separate worlds
Lack of cross-cleavage contacts
Mobilization of electoral support for demands that are
hard to reconcile
Centrifugal logic
Risk of potential immobilism and instability
→ How to cope with these divisions and make the country governable?
, 3.2 THE SOLUTION: CONSIOCIATIONAL DEMOCRACY
Consociational democracy (Lijphart)
= set of practices that allow divided societies to survive
Basic principals
1. Power-sharing at the elite level
Spirit of accommodation between leaders
▪ Want to find common solution and hear each other out
▪ We do not use majority techniques
Grand coalition, proportionally, mutual veto
2. Segmental autonomy
allow (and finance) segments to organize life according to own principles
▪ Ex. healthcare got autonomy to provide services for their citizens, education
▪ Later also for linguistic communities
Advantage: no need for 1 size fits all approach
Disadvantage: further reinforces segmentation
A textbook example
Belgium can legitimately claim to be one of the most thorough examples of consociational
democracy” (Lijphart, 1981: 1)
Since WW1: when a political crisis arises
→ Leaders of mean social segments (party leaders) try to reach an agreement
1. Delicate ‘compromis à la Belge’ for common policies (= power-sharing)
2. More autonomy to segments for own policies and services (segmental autonomy)
- 1918: The pact of Loppem
Can be considered the start of the Belgian consociationalism
Aftermath of WWI
▪ Hit hard by WWI, economy low, high unemployment,
▪ threat of communism: October revolution in Russia 1917
▪ growing labor movement
King Albert gathers party leaders to discuss reforms and bridge divisions in three-
party government
▪ The 3 political parties: Catholics, socialists & liberals to discuss the deep
divisions
▪ wants to avoid revolution
▪ in castle of Loppen
Several concessions for (earlier too) ‘radical’ demands of socialists
▪ Electoral system reform, (one man, one vote) even if not allowed by the
constitution
▪ Expansion of right to strike
▪ Recognition of Dutch as an official language
▪ Socialist win a lot of votes, catholic lose a lot -> from now on, coalition
governments are the norm
