ACADEMIC and Legal English
Table of Contents
ACADEMIC and Legal English...........................................................................1
1. Common Grammar & Spelling Errors (“No-No’s”)...........................................3
I. Quantifiers.................................................................................................... 3
II. Commonly Confused Words.........................................................................5
III. Spelling and Word Usage............................................................................7
2. Tenses in Legal Contexts................................................................................. 7
I. Overview of Tenses – Present & Past.............................................................8
II. Future Forms................................................................................................ 9
III. Anchors & Sequencing..............................................................................10
IV. Common Errors......................................................................................... 10
V. Legal Genre Applications...........................................................................12
3. Reported Speech.......................................................................................... 13
I. What Is Reported Speech?..........................................................................13
II. Key Changes in Reported Speech..............................................................13
III. Reporting Questions.................................................................................14
IV. Reporting Orders and Requests................................................................14
V. Modals in Reported Speech........................................................................15
VI. Summary of Backshifting Rules................................................................15
VII. Exercises and Examples..........................................................................16
4. Building Effective Sentences........................................................................16
I. Importance of Sentence Clarity..................................................................16
II. Sentence Length and Structure.................................................................17
III. Conciseness – Avoiding Wordiness............................................................18
IV. Word Choice and Tone............................................................................... 18
V. Correctness – Grammar and Collocations..................................................19
VI. Practical Application and Exercises..........................................................20
VII. Summary of Key Principles......................................................................21
5. Cohesion and Coherence..............................................................................21
I. Understanding Cohesion and Coherence....................................................21
II. Clauses and Sentence Connection.............................................................22
III. Relative Pronouns..................................................................................... 22
, IV. Conjunctions............................................................................................. 23
V. Sentence Linking and Position in Text........................................................24
VI. Common Errors and Clarifications............................................................24
VII. Summary of Key Principles......................................................................26
6. Multi-word Verbs........................................................................................... 26
I. Introduction................................................................................................ 26
II. Types of Multi-word Verbs..........................................................................27
III. Phrasal Verbs............................................................................................ 27
IV. One-word vs Multi-word Verbs..................................................................29
V. Prepositional Verbs (PRE)...........................................................................29
VI. Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs (PHR-PRE).....................................................30
VII. Register: Formal vs Informal Usage.........................................................30
VIII. Fixed Expressions in Legal English..........................................................31
IX. Summary of Key Principles.......................................................................31
7. Infinitive or -ing Form (Gerund / Present Participle)......................................31
I. General Overview....................................................................................... 31
II. The To-Infinitive......................................................................................... 32
III. The -ing Form (Present Participle / Gerund)..............................................34
IV. Infinitive vs. -ing: change in meaning.......................................................35
V. Key Structural Rules................................................................................... 36
VI. Typical Student Errors...............................................................................37
VII. Summary of Key Principles......................................................................37
8. The Passive................................................................................................... 38
I. Introduction – Active vs. Passive Voice.......................................................38
II. The Passive as a Grammatical "Voice".......................................................38
III. Requirements for the Passive...................................................................38
IV. Formation of the Passive...........................................................................40
V. Modal Auxiliaries in the Passive.................................................................42
VI. Passive with Monotransitive Verbs............................................................42
VII. Passive with Ditransitive Verbs................................................................43
VIII. When the Passive is NOT Possible...........................................................44
IX. Usage of the Passive................................................................................ 45
X. Summary of Key Principles – The Passive..................................................46
9. Conditionals.................................................................................................. 46
I. Introduction to Conditionals........................................................................46
II. Zero Conditionals (Type 0).........................................................................49
III. First Conditionals (Type 1).........................................................................49
, IV. Second Conditionals (Type 2)....................................................................50
V. Third Conditionals (Type 3)........................................................................51
VI. Mixed Conditionals................................................................................... 52
VII. Stylistic & Regional Differences...............................................................52
VIII. Common Learner Problems.....................................................................52
IX. Additional Context: Compensation Culture...............................................53
X. Summary of Key Principles – Conditionals.................................................53
10. The Subjunctive.......................................................................................... 54
I. Introduction................................................................................................ 54
II. Types of subjunctive.................................................................................. 55
11. Modal Verbs................................................................................................ 58
I. Introduction to Modal Verbs........................................................................58
II. Types of Modal Verbs................................................................................. 59
III. Defective Nature of Modal Verbs..............................................................59
IV. Aspects of Meaning Expressed by Modals.................................................60
V. Frequent Mistakes with Modal Verbs..........................................................61
VI. Ability....................................................................................................... 61
VII. Possibility (Deduction / Speculation)........................................................62
VIII. Permission.............................................................................................. 62
IX. Obligation and Necessity..........................................................................63
X. Recommendation and Advice....................................................................63
XI. Deduction................................................................................................. 64
XII. Lack of Obligation vs Prohibition.............................................................64
XIII. Summary Table of Common Confusions.................................................64
1. Common Grammar & Spelling Errors (“No-No’s”)
I. Quantifiers
The distinction countable / uncountable = more relevant in English than in
Dutch determines the choice of determiners: some / any, much / many,
little / few, less / fewer, a number of / an amount of.
1. Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns
Countable nouns: can be made plural & counted can be used w.
a / an.
o 1 table – 2 tables; chair / chairs;...
Uncountable nouns: no plural form, cannot be counted.
, o some money, much information
o air, water, sand
Some nouns change from countable uncountable depending on
meaning.
o He drank two glasses of wine.
o This table is made of glass.
2. Some and Any
Some
Used in affirmative sentences:
o She’s got some interesting suggestions.
Used in requests & offers (expected “yes”):
o Could I make some suggestions?
Used to show an approximate number:
o Some 30 part-time workers were laid off.
Any
Used in negative sentences / w. words like never, without, hardly:
o She hasn’t got any suggestions.
Used in questions:
o Do you have any suggestions?
Used in affirmative sentences to mean “it doesn’t matter which”:
o Any suggestion would be welcome.
o If you have any question, I’ll answer it.
3. Much and Many
Much
With singular uncountable nouns:
o I don’t have much time.
With comparative form of adj. (‘vergelijkende trap’: bv. Beter,
makkelijker, groter...):
o It’s much easier that way.
With verbs referring to change (e.g. incr., fall, fluctuate...):
, o He hasn’t changed much.
Many
With plural countable nouns:
o No country has ever cut so many jobs.
Common mistake: He has so much ideas. He has so many ideas.
A lot of / Lots of
Can be used with countable & uncountable nouns if a word has a
similar meaning.
o Can you hurry up? I don’t have a lot of time.
Less formal than much / many.
o We’ve got lots of things to do.
4. Little vs. Few
Little / Less / Least
Used with singular uncountable nouns, adjectives, / verbs.
o I have little hope it will improve.
o But some analysts were less confident.
o She had the least amount of work.
Few / Fewer / Fewest
Used with plural countable nouns.
o Fewer consumers, fewest mistakes
o Few solutions are as effective.
o The result will be higher prices and fewer choices for
consumers.
o My first applicant made the fewest mistakes.
A few & a little express a positive idea (at least some).
II. Commonly Confused Words
1. There, Their, They’re
There: introductory subject (There is, There are).
o There is a problem.
There: adverb of place.
Table of Contents
ACADEMIC and Legal English...........................................................................1
1. Common Grammar & Spelling Errors (“No-No’s”)...........................................3
I. Quantifiers.................................................................................................... 3
II. Commonly Confused Words.........................................................................5
III. Spelling and Word Usage............................................................................7
2. Tenses in Legal Contexts................................................................................. 7
I. Overview of Tenses – Present & Past.............................................................8
II. Future Forms................................................................................................ 9
III. Anchors & Sequencing..............................................................................10
IV. Common Errors......................................................................................... 10
V. Legal Genre Applications...........................................................................12
3. Reported Speech.......................................................................................... 13
I. What Is Reported Speech?..........................................................................13
II. Key Changes in Reported Speech..............................................................13
III. Reporting Questions.................................................................................14
IV. Reporting Orders and Requests................................................................14
V. Modals in Reported Speech........................................................................15
VI. Summary of Backshifting Rules................................................................15
VII. Exercises and Examples..........................................................................16
4. Building Effective Sentences........................................................................16
I. Importance of Sentence Clarity..................................................................16
II. Sentence Length and Structure.................................................................17
III. Conciseness – Avoiding Wordiness............................................................18
IV. Word Choice and Tone............................................................................... 18
V. Correctness – Grammar and Collocations..................................................19
VI. Practical Application and Exercises..........................................................20
VII. Summary of Key Principles......................................................................21
5. Cohesion and Coherence..............................................................................21
I. Understanding Cohesion and Coherence....................................................21
II. Clauses and Sentence Connection.............................................................22
III. Relative Pronouns..................................................................................... 22
, IV. Conjunctions............................................................................................. 23
V. Sentence Linking and Position in Text........................................................24
VI. Common Errors and Clarifications............................................................24
VII. Summary of Key Principles......................................................................26
6. Multi-word Verbs........................................................................................... 26
I. Introduction................................................................................................ 26
II. Types of Multi-word Verbs..........................................................................27
III. Phrasal Verbs............................................................................................ 27
IV. One-word vs Multi-word Verbs..................................................................29
V. Prepositional Verbs (PRE)...........................................................................29
VI. Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs (PHR-PRE).....................................................30
VII. Register: Formal vs Informal Usage.........................................................30
VIII. Fixed Expressions in Legal English..........................................................31
IX. Summary of Key Principles.......................................................................31
7. Infinitive or -ing Form (Gerund / Present Participle)......................................31
I. General Overview....................................................................................... 31
II. The To-Infinitive......................................................................................... 32
III. The -ing Form (Present Participle / Gerund)..............................................34
IV. Infinitive vs. -ing: change in meaning.......................................................35
V. Key Structural Rules................................................................................... 36
VI. Typical Student Errors...............................................................................37
VII. Summary of Key Principles......................................................................37
8. The Passive................................................................................................... 38
I. Introduction – Active vs. Passive Voice.......................................................38
II. The Passive as a Grammatical "Voice".......................................................38
III. Requirements for the Passive...................................................................38
IV. Formation of the Passive...........................................................................40
V. Modal Auxiliaries in the Passive.................................................................42
VI. Passive with Monotransitive Verbs............................................................42
VII. Passive with Ditransitive Verbs................................................................43
VIII. When the Passive is NOT Possible...........................................................44
IX. Usage of the Passive................................................................................ 45
X. Summary of Key Principles – The Passive..................................................46
9. Conditionals.................................................................................................. 46
I. Introduction to Conditionals........................................................................46
II. Zero Conditionals (Type 0).........................................................................49
III. First Conditionals (Type 1).........................................................................49
, IV. Second Conditionals (Type 2)....................................................................50
V. Third Conditionals (Type 3)........................................................................51
VI. Mixed Conditionals................................................................................... 52
VII. Stylistic & Regional Differences...............................................................52
VIII. Common Learner Problems.....................................................................52
IX. Additional Context: Compensation Culture...............................................53
X. Summary of Key Principles – Conditionals.................................................53
10. The Subjunctive.......................................................................................... 54
I. Introduction................................................................................................ 54
II. Types of subjunctive.................................................................................. 55
11. Modal Verbs................................................................................................ 58
I. Introduction to Modal Verbs........................................................................58
II. Types of Modal Verbs................................................................................. 59
III. Defective Nature of Modal Verbs..............................................................59
IV. Aspects of Meaning Expressed by Modals.................................................60
V. Frequent Mistakes with Modal Verbs..........................................................61
VI. Ability....................................................................................................... 61
VII. Possibility (Deduction / Speculation)........................................................62
VIII. Permission.............................................................................................. 62
IX. Obligation and Necessity..........................................................................63
X. Recommendation and Advice....................................................................63
XI. Deduction................................................................................................. 64
XII. Lack of Obligation vs Prohibition.............................................................64
XIII. Summary Table of Common Confusions.................................................64
1. Common Grammar & Spelling Errors (“No-No’s”)
I. Quantifiers
The distinction countable / uncountable = more relevant in English than in
Dutch determines the choice of determiners: some / any, much / many,
little / few, less / fewer, a number of / an amount of.
1. Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns
Countable nouns: can be made plural & counted can be used w.
a / an.
o 1 table – 2 tables; chair / chairs;...
Uncountable nouns: no plural form, cannot be counted.
, o some money, much information
o air, water, sand
Some nouns change from countable uncountable depending on
meaning.
o He drank two glasses of wine.
o This table is made of glass.
2. Some and Any
Some
Used in affirmative sentences:
o She’s got some interesting suggestions.
Used in requests & offers (expected “yes”):
o Could I make some suggestions?
Used to show an approximate number:
o Some 30 part-time workers were laid off.
Any
Used in negative sentences / w. words like never, without, hardly:
o She hasn’t got any suggestions.
Used in questions:
o Do you have any suggestions?
Used in affirmative sentences to mean “it doesn’t matter which”:
o Any suggestion would be welcome.
o If you have any question, I’ll answer it.
3. Much and Many
Much
With singular uncountable nouns:
o I don’t have much time.
With comparative form of adj. (‘vergelijkende trap’: bv. Beter,
makkelijker, groter...):
o It’s much easier that way.
With verbs referring to change (e.g. incr., fall, fluctuate...):
, o He hasn’t changed much.
Many
With plural countable nouns:
o No country has ever cut so many jobs.
Common mistake: He has so much ideas. He has so many ideas.
A lot of / Lots of
Can be used with countable & uncountable nouns if a word has a
similar meaning.
o Can you hurry up? I don’t have a lot of time.
Less formal than much / many.
o We’ve got lots of things to do.
4. Little vs. Few
Little / Less / Least
Used with singular uncountable nouns, adjectives, / verbs.
o I have little hope it will improve.
o But some analysts were less confident.
o She had the least amount of work.
Few / Fewer / Fewest
Used with plural countable nouns.
o Fewer consumers, fewest mistakes
o Few solutions are as effective.
o The result will be higher prices and fewer choices for
consumers.
o My first applicant made the fewest mistakes.
A few & a little express a positive idea (at least some).
II. Commonly Confused Words
1. There, Their, They’re
There: introductory subject (There is, There are).
o There is a problem.
There: adverb of place.
