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Academic and LEGAL English

Table of Contents
Academic and LEGAL English..........................................................................1
1. Legal English: Legal Profession and Branches of the Law...............................8
I. Legal Professions – UK..................................................................................8
II. Legal Professions – US...............................................................................10
III. Legal Professions – Belgium......................................................................11
IV. Legal Professions – Common confusion....................................................12
V. Legal Professions – Training.......................................................................12
VI. Branches of the Law................................................................................. 13
VII. News Literacy – Trustworthiness Test.......................................................14
VIII. News Literacy – UK vs. US Media Landscape..........................................15
Vocabulary List 1.............................................................................................. 18
Vocabulary List 2.............................................................................................. 22
Reading: Did the Mail and the Sun help swing the UK towards Brexit?.............24
Media Coverage on Migrants.........................................................................24
Misinformation about the EU.........................................................................24
Public Understanding of the EU.....................................................................24
Key Takeaways............................................................................................... 25
2. Court Systems.............................................................................................. 25
I. UK Court Systems – England and Wales.....................................................25
II. UK Court Systems – Scotland.....................................................................27
III. US Court Systems – Introduction..............................................................28
IV. US Court Systems – Federal Courts...........................................................30
V. US Court Systems – State Courts...............................................................31
VI. US Court Systems – SCOTUS (Supreme Court of the US)..........................32
Vocabulary List 3.............................................................................................. 34
3. UK Society: Politics and Voting in the UK......................................................38
I. Overview of the UK Political System...........................................................38
II. Structure of Government...........................................................................38
III. The Houses of Parliament.........................................................................39
IV. Devolved Governments............................................................................ 41
V. Political Parties in the UK...........................................................................41

, Why is being able to correctly use the terminology of the British Isles so
important?..................................................................................................... 43
VI. Political Landscape................................................................................... 44
VII. Voting System: First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)................................................46
Vocabulary List 4.............................................................................................. 48
4. The Decline and Legacy of the British Empire..............................................52
I. Post-World War II: Decline of the Empire:....................................................52
II. . Foreign Policy and Decolonisation...........................................................54
III. The Suez Crisis (1956) and Aftermath......................................................55
IV. The Commonwealth..................................................................................56
V. Commonwealth: Perception of Empire.......................................................57
5. UK Society: Industrial Action, the Thatcher Revolution, and Euroscepticism 58
I. Industrial Action.......................................................................................... 58
II. The Thatcher Revolution............................................................................59
III. Euroscepticism.......................................................................................... 62
6. Court Procedures and Alternative Dispute Resolution...................................63
I. Civil Proceedings: UK and US......................................................................63
II. Criminal Proceedings: UK and US...............................................................64
III. Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR).......................................................65
Reading : “Jurors don’t know what the penalties for a guilty verdict will be.
They should.” — Daniel Epps & William Ortman (Washington Post, 2021).......65
Core argument: jury ignorance undermines justice.......................................65
Why jury ignorance exists.............................................................................66
Historical perspective: juries were once informed.........................................66
Modern consequences: mass incarceration and coercion..............................67
Prosecutorial power and plea bargaining.......................................................67
The proposed reform: informed juries...........................................................68
Expected effects of informed juries...............................................................68
Democratic legitimacy and constitutional values..........................................68
Vocabulary List 5.............................................................................................. 69
7. UK Society: New Labour, Devolution, and the Good Friday Agreement........72
I. Referendums.............................................................................................. 72
II. The Good Friday Agreement Referendum..................................................73
III. Escalation of the Troubles (1960s–1990s).................................................74
IV. The Good Friday / Belfast Agreement (1998)............................................78
V. Devolution Referendums – Context in Scotland.........................................79
VI. Devolution Referendums – Context in Wales............................................80

,8. UK Society: International Involvement – Afghanistan, Iraq & Terrorism........81
I. Foreign Policy & the “War on Terror”...........................................................81
II. Europe: Sovereignty, Euro Debate, and Limited Integration......................83
9. The 2008 Financial Crisis..............................................................................84
I. Origins of the Crisis (1997–2010)...............................................................84
II. The Crisis in Britain.................................................................................... 85
III. Political Consequences: Collapse of Trust & Austerity...............................86
IV. Conclusion: A Rewired United Kingdom....................................................87
10. Legal English: Public International Law & Human Rights............................88
I. Public International Law – Key Concepts.....................................................88
II. Case Studies – Public International Law.....................................................90
III. Human Rights Law.................................................................................... 92
IV. Human Rights Case Studies......................................................................93
Vocabulary List 6.............................................................................................. 94
11. UK Society: From Referendum to Referendum – Britain’s Political Crossroads
......................................................................................................................... 96
I. Austerity (2010–2019 and 2021–present)...................................................96
II. London Riots (2011).................................................................................. 99
III. Scottish Independence Referendum (2014)............................................100
IV. Brexit...................................................................................................... 106
Vocabulary List 7............................................................................................ 114
12. Legal English: Family Law.........................................................................119
I. Overview of Family Law............................................................................ 119
II. Alimony.................................................................................................... 121
III. Harassment............................................................................................ 122
IV. Notarial Law and Succession..................................................................123
Discussion: Alimony (Spousal Support) & Sexual Harassment........................124
I. Alimony (Maintenance / Spousal Support)................................................124
II. Harmless Behaviour or Sexual Harassment?...........................................126
Reading: Masterpiece Cakeshop Ltd. v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission (U.S.
Supreme Court, 2018).................................................................................... 129
Context and central legal tension................................................................129
Public accommodations and general rule....................................................130
The baker’s claim: expression and conscience............................................130
Limits of the baker’s position.......................................................................131
The decisive issue: lack of neutrality and religious hostility........................131
Unequal treatment compared to other bakers.............................................132

, Constitutional principle affirmed..................................................................132
Outcome and broader implications..............................................................133
Overall significance..................................................................................... 133
Reading: “The law cannot force us to be nice to each other” — The Telegraph
(2014)............................................................................................................. 133
Central issue and background.....................................................................133
Government proposal and its rationale.......................................................134
Core concern: enforceability and policing....................................................134
Risk of over-criminalisation and vagueness.................................................135
The limits of criminal law............................................................................. 135
Extension to child neglect and wider implications.......................................136
Overall position of the article......................................................................136
Vocabulary list 8............................................................................................. 136
13. UK Society: The UK Today – Post-Brexit Realities.......................................139
I. Britain After Brexit — Overview................................................................139
II. Northern Ireland...................................................................................... 141
III. July 2024 General Election......................................................................141
IV. Economic and Social Challenges.............................................................141
V. Migration.................................................................................................. 142
VI. Scotland’s Position.................................................................................. 142
VII. Structural Challenges............................................................................ 142
VIII. Constitutional & Geopolitical Challenges..............................................143
IX. Key Takeaways....................................................................................... 144
14. US Society: Politics, Voting and the Civil Rights Movement......................144
I. The Political Landscape of the United States............................................144
II. Key Presidential Figures and Party Shifts.................................................147
III. US Politics — Trouble in the Territories....................................................149
IV. The Voting System in the United States..................................................151
V. Party Realignment and Modern US Politics...............................................155
VI. The American Century and the Cold War................................................157
VII. Anticommunism and McCarthyism........................................................158
VIII. The Civil Rights Movement...................................................................159
IX. Parallel Rights Movements.....................................................................162
X. Legacies and Consequences...................................................................163
Reading: “Trump’s revenge: tilting of supreme court to the right poised to bear
fruit” — David Smith (The Guardian, 2021)....................................................163
Trump’s judicial focus and long-term strategy.............................................163

, Scale and significance of Trump’s appointments.........................................164
Key legal issues before the Supreme Court.................................................164
Obamacare and voting rights......................................................................165
Gun control and conflict with Biden.............................................................165
The role of the Chief Justice.........................................................................166
Republican defence and minority rule debate.............................................166
Vocabulary List 9............................................................................................ 167
15. Company Law........................................................................................... 170
I. Key Terminology....................................................................................... 170
II. Organisational Structures (Business Forms)............................................170
III. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).....................................................171
IV. Dodge v. Ford Motor Co...........................................................................172
Reading: “A Duty to Shareholder Value” — Stephen Bainbridge (New York
Times, 2015)................................................................................................... 172
Core thesis: shareholder wealth maximization as a legal duty....................172
Accountability and decision-making: the obsolete plant example...............173
Problems if shareholder wealth maximization were not the norm...............174
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) and legal scepticism..........................174
Dodge v. Ford Motor Co.: foundation of the principle...................................175
Contemporary relevance and reaffirmation of the rule................................175
Overall evaluation....................................................................................... 176
Vocabulary List 10.......................................................................................... 176
16. Political Polarization: Vietnam, Watergate & Rise of the Radical Right.....178
I. The Credibility Gap – The Vietnam War....................................................178
II. The Pentagon Papers (1971)....................................................................179
III. Trauma & Assassinations (1960s)...........................................................180
IV. Nixon’s Silent Majority & Southern Strategy...........................................181
V. Watergate Scandal................................................................................... 181
VI. Carter’s Outsider Presidency (1976—1980)............................................182
VII. Social Conflicts in the 1970s..................................................................183
VIII. Reagan’s Conservative Coalition..........................................................183
IX. Reaganomics & Domestic Politics...........................................................184
X. Media & Polarisation................................................................................184
XI. War on Drugs & the AIDS Crisis..............................................................185
XII. Reagan & the End of the Cold War........................................................185
XIII. Reagan’s Legacy...................................................................................186
XIV. Reagan to Clinton: Polarisation Entrenched (1990s).............................186

, XV. Key Legacies (1960s—1990s)................................................................187
17. Contract Law............................................................................................. 187
I. Core Concepts in Contract Law.................................................................187
II. Types of Terms and Interpretation............................................................188
III. Key Drafting Terminology........................................................................189
IV. Standard Contract Structure...................................................................189
Vocabulary List 11.......................................................................................... 190
18. From Unipolar Moment to Unfinished Wars...............................................192
I. The “Unipolar Moment” (1990s)...............................................................192
II. Third Way at Home — Growth & Rules.....................................................192
III. US Intervention by Diplomacy: The Balkans...........................................192
IV. Early Structural Shifts & Warning Signs (late 1990s–early 2000s)..........194
V. The 2000 Election – “Rules Matter”.........................................................194
VI. 9/11 and the Transformation of US Foreign & Domestic Policy...............194
VII. Afghanistan: “Easy In, Hard Out”...........................................................195
VIII. Iraq War: Choice, Justification & Consequences....................................196
IX. Law & Legitimacy in the War on Terror...................................................196
X. Hurricane Katrina (2005).........................................................................198
XI. 2008 Financial Crisis — Great Recession................................................198
XII. Politics in Transition (2000s)..................................................................199
XIII. Threading the Story..............................................................................201
XIV. Hand-Off to the 2010s..........................................................................201
19. Employment Law...................................................................................... 201
I. Introduction to Employment Law..............................................................202
II. Key Concepts and Terminology in Employment Law................................202
Reading: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 — Unlawful Employment
Practices (Section 703)...................................................................................202
General purpose and scope of Title VII........................................................203
Employer practices: prohibition of discrimination and segregation.............203
Employment agencies and indirect discrimination......................................203
Bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQ): narrow exceptions...............204
Preferential treatment for Indigenous peoples............................................205
Overall evaluation and legal logic...............................................................205
Vocabulary List 12.......................................................................................... 206
20. Reading: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (US)...............................208
21. US Society: Remapping the Republic (2010s)...........................................209
I. Obama’s Inheritance (2009).....................................................................209

, II. Economic Triage I: Stabilising the System...............................................210
III. Economic Triage II: Uneven Recovery.....................................................210
IV. Healthcare Reform: The Affordable Care Act (ACA).................................210
V. Shifting Political Rules..............................................................................211
VI. Social Movements and Moral Vocabularies.............................................212
VII. Foreign Policy under Obama..................................................................214
VIII. Social & Economic Map of the 2010s....................................................215
IX. The 2016 Election...................................................................................215
X. Trump at Home........................................................................................ 216
XI. Institutional Collisions............................................................................. 217
XII. COVID-19 Stress Test.............................................................................218
XIII. 2020 Election & Contestation...............................................................218
XIV. The Through-Line (2008–2020).............................................................219
XV. Stage Set for the 2020a.........................................................................219
Contest: liberal democracy vs. populist nationalism:..................................219
22. Tort Law.................................................................................................... 220
I. Definition.................................................................................................. 220
II. Types of Torts........................................................................................... 220
III. Purpose................................................................................................... 220
IV. Remedies................................................................................................ 220
Vocabulary List 13.......................................................................................... 221
23. The USA Today.......................................................................................... 223
I. January 5, 2021 — A Shock to Ritual........................................................223
II. Biden’s ‘Triage’ Presidence Begins...........................................................223
III. Rebuilding Agenda.................................................................................. 223
IV. Courts Shift Governing Power.................................................................223
V. Labour Revival & Antitrust.......................................................................224
VI. Afghanistan & Ukraine............................................................................224
VII. Reproductive Rights............................................................................... 225
VIII. Immigration Patchwork.........................................................................225
IX. 2024 Campaign Jolts...............................................................................225
X. Trump’s Second Term — Early Moves......................................................225
XI. Domestic Deployments & the Guard......................................................226
XII. Project 2025.......................................................................................... 226
XIV. Supreme Court Decisions, 2024–2025..................................................227
XV. Student Debt Whiplash..........................................................................228
XVI. Abortion Politics Harden.......................................................................228

, XVII. Trump’s Second Term Abroad..............................................................228
XVIII. Institutional Stakes, 2021–2025.........................................................228
XIV. The Hinge Lessons................................................................................ 228
XV. Major Issues & Challenges Beyond Trump.............................................229
Vocabulary List 14.......................................................................................... 233
24. Criminal Law............................................................................................. 236
I. Core Concepts in Criminal Law.................................................................236
II. Key Criminal Law Vocabulary...................................................................236
III. Crimes & Actions:................................................................................... 237
IV. Criminal Offences & Terminology............................................................238
V. Sentencing in Criminal Law......................................................................239
VI. Crime & Punishment: Further Key Terms................................................239
VII. Joint Enterprise (Guilty by Association)..................................................240
25. Reading: Joint enterprise..........................................................................240
“Joint enterprise: which of these people do you think is guilty?” – John Casey
(2015).......................................................................................................... 240
Vocabulary List 15.......................................................................................... 243


1. Legal English: Legal Profession and Branches of the
Law


I. Legal Professions – UK
Solicitor
 Client-facing lawyer; prepares cases, contracts
 Gives legal advice, drafts documents, handles transactions, litigation
prep.
 Some advocacy in lower courts
 Qualifies via:
o England & Wales  SQE + QWE

o Scotland  LLB (Scots Law) + DPLP + 2-year traineeship

 Can become Solicitor Advocate for higher courts (SCOT)
Solicitor Advocate
 Solicitor who gained Higher Rights of Audience (criminal / civil) 
ENG & WAL.

,  Solicitor w. Extended rights after assessment & appears in supreme
courts (SCOT)
 Appears in higher courts after specific assessment / accreditation
Barrister (ENG & WAL) / Advocate (Scotland)
 Barrister (E&W): specialist advocate, independent bar
o Training: pupillage then tenancy

o Instructed by solicitors

 Advocate (Scotland): member of the Faculty of Advocates =
specialist advocate
o Post-qualification: devilling (apprenticeship after solicitor
qualification)
 Performs oral advocacy & writes opinions
 Pleads in higher courts (full rights of audience)
King’s Counsel (KC) (“silk”)
 Senior barristers (E&W) / advocates (SCOT)  formerly QC (in SCOT:
title also KC)
 Appointed following selection (E&W)
 Title used in court & on pleadings (E&W)
 Handles complex / high-profile trial & appellate advocacy (leading
advocacy) + opinions
 Full rights of audience (senior rank)
Prosecutor / Procurator Fiscal (Scotland)
 England & Wales: Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) prosecutors
o Advocacy often by self-employed barristers / solicitor advocates

 Scotland: Procurator Fiscal (via COPFS)
 Conducts prosecutions; advocacy by fiscals, advocates, / solicitor
advocates
o Represents the state in criminal cases

 Full rights of audience in criminal courts
Judge / (Summary) Sheriffs (Scotland)
 Appointed (usually senior practitioners)
 Scotland: Sheriffs / Summary Sheriffs / Senators of the College of
Justice (Court of Session & High Court of Justiciary)
 Responsible for adjudication & case management

,  Presides (in courts)
Magistrate / Justice of the Peace (Scotland)
 England & Wales: (Lay) Magistrate / District Judge (Magistrates’
Courts)
 Scotland: Justice of the Peace (JP) Courts for minor criminal / civil
matters
 Volunteer role, no legal background required
 Focus on mediation & handling minor criminal & family cases
 Presides (not professional judges)
Notary
 Specialist lawyer handling document & signature authentication &
deeds with international effect
 E&W: Notary for international deeds
 Scotland: Notary Public, usually a qualified Scottish solicitor admitted
to notarial office.
Paralegal / Legal executive
 Supportive, non-lawyer role in casework, research, & drafting
 E&W: May qualify as Legal Executive (CILEX route)
 Scotland: Similar paralegal positions
 No right of audience



II. Legal Professions – US
Attorney (Attorney-at-law)
 Licensed lawyer admitted to a State Bar after JD + Bar Exam
 State-specific: must retake Bar if moving states.
 Provides legal advice, drafts documents, conducts advocacy.
 Full right of audience depending on court admission.
Prosecutor
 Represents government at District, State, / Federal level.
 District Attorney (DA) = in charge locally
 Chief Legal Officer in a jurisdiction; Attorney-General at federal
level
 Brings criminal cases for the state
 Full rights in criminal courts