Inhoud
International & European Human Rights Law.........................................................7
Chapter 1: General introduction to human rights...............................7
§1 Problem of definition.................................................................................... 7
§2 What they do............................................................................................... 8
§3 Features of human rights............................................................................. 9
§4 History of human rights and generations....................................................9
§5 Actors in the world of human rights...........................................................11
Chapter 2: Human rights: a matter of international concern.............13
§1Introduction................................................................................................ 14
§2 Antecedents.............................................................................................. 14
§3 Sovereign states – “Responsible Sovereignty”...........................................15
§4 Universality of human rights......................................................................17
§5 Sources of international human rights.......................................................17
Chapter 3: The United Nations........................................................19
§1 Introduction............................................................................................... 19
§2 Norms (1. UN Charter 2. UHDR 3. Treaties)................................................19
§3 Enforcement: 2 tracks............................................................................... 20
1. Treaty-Based Mechanisms.......................................................................20
2. Charter-Based Mechanisms.....................................................................22
Chapter 4: Regional human rights mechanisms................................24
§1 Introduction............................................................................................... 24
§2 The Council of Europe................................................................................ 24
§3 The European Union (EU)...........................................................................26
§4 Other Regional Systems............................................................................ 26
Chapter 5: Regional mechanisms: ECHR (part 2)...............................27
§1 Introduction: The ECHR as a Living System...............................................27
§2 Control Mechanism.................................................................................... 27
1. Organisation of the Court and its evolution............................................27
2. Contentious Jurisdiction of the ECHR: Bringing a Case to the ECtHR......28
a) Admissibility criteria............................................................................ 29
b) Articles 34 and 35 ECHR (juncto 47 Rules of Court).............................30
c) Procedure............................................................................................. 32
d) Examination of admissibility and merits..............................................32
e) Decision or judgment...........................................................................33
f) Rehearing by the Grand Chamber (panel of 5 Judges).........................33
1
, g) Execution of the judgement: Committee of Ministers..........................34
3. Advisory jurisdiction of the ECHR............................................................34
a) Advisory opinion at the request of a supreme court (Prot. No. 16)......34
b) Advisory opinion at the request of the Committee of Ministers of the
Council of Europe (art. 47-49 ECHR)........................................................34
4. Requests for information by the Secretary-General of the Council of
Europe (art. 52)........................................................................................... 35
5. Key Challenges Facing the ECHR System................................................35
a) Workload.............................................................................................. 35
b) Contestation of the legitimacy.............................................................36
§3 EU and ECHR............................................................................................. 36
1. The problem............................................................................................ 36
2. The ideal solution.................................................................................... 36
3. The intermediate way............................................................................. 36
4. Negotiations – opinion 2/13 (18 December 2014)...................................37
Chapter 6: Obligations imposed on states........................................37
§1 Secure HR’s to everyone within the jurisdiction........................................37
1. Principle: territorial jurisdiction...............................................................37
2. Exceptions: extra-territorial jurisdiction..................................................38
3. “Infraterritorial” jurisdiction....................................................................38
4. Specific situations................................................................................... 39
a) Instantaneous acts/omissions outside territory...................................39
b) Effects acts/omissions outside territory...............................................39
c) Soering Exception (cfr. Infra)................................................................39
d) Intensity link with jurisdiction..............................................................39
§2 Nature of the state’s obligation.................................................................40
1. Negative obligations............................................................................... 40
a) General................................................................................................ 40
b) Limitations (3 steps test).....................................................................41
2. Positive obligations................................................................................. 42
3. Margin of Appreciation............................................................................ 43
Chapter 7: Human rights in the domestic legal order........................45
§1 Status of the ECHR in National Law...........................................................45
1. Implementation of IHRL norms................................................................45
2. Right to a remedy................................................................................... 46
§2 Effects of a finding of violation of human rights by an international control
organ.............................................................................................................. 46
1. Execution of the Judgements (art. 46 ECHR)...........................................46
2
, a) Obligation to comply (res judicata)......................................................46
i) Towards the applicant........................................................................47
ii) General obligations...........................................................................47
b) Supervision of the execution of judgements........................................48
i) By the Committee of Ministers (art. 46 ECHR)...................................48
ii) By the Court itself............................................................................. 48
c) Infringement procedure (art. 46, 4-5)..................................................49
2. Authority of the ECtHR’s Interpretation (res interpretata).......................49
Chapter 8: Article 2 – Right to life....................................................50
§1 General Considerations of Article 2 ECHR..................................................50
1. The Supreme Value and Scope of the Right to Life.................................50
2. Scope of application: protection of the “life” of individuals....................50
3. Scope of the protection...........................................................................51
§2 The state's negative obligations under article 2........................................51
1. Principle: general prohibition on taking life.............................................51
2. Exceptions: the justified use of force......................................................51
a) Use of force, under certain conditions.................................................51
i) State responsibility for the interference with a person’s life..............51
ii) Situations susceptible to justify the use of force...............................52
iii) Cases............................................................................................... 52
b) Death penalty...................................................................................... 52
§3 The state's positive obligations under article 2.........................................53
1. Substantive/preventive obligation: to take preventive measures...........53
2. Procedural obligation: to conduct an effective investigation...................55
a) In case of death in suspicious circumstances......................................56
i) General conditions for an effective investigation..............................56
ii) Cases................................................................................................ 56
b) In case of loss of life due to events occurring under the responsibility
of the public authorities...........................................................................56
c) In case of unintentional loss of life, not involving the responsibility of
the state.................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 9: Article 3 ECHR – The prohibition of torture, inhuman and
degrading treatment & punishment.................................................58
§1 The prohibition of torture and ill-treatment...............................................58
§2 Article 3 ECHR: general.............................................................................. 59
1. The Absolute Character of the Prohibition...............................................59
2. The minimum level of severity................................................................60
a) Relative................................................................................................ 60
3
, b) Evolutive interpretation.......................................................................60
3. 3 categories of ill-treatment under article 3............................................61
a) Torture................................................................................................. 61
b) Inhuman treatment or punishment......................................................62
c) Degrading treatment or punishment...................................................63
§4 State obligations under article 3................................................................64
1. Negative Obligations............................................................................... 64
2. Positive Obligations................................................................................. 64
a) Substantive obligation: preventive measures......................................64
b) Procedural obligation: effective investigation......................................65
§5 Application of article 3 in specific contexts: key case law themes.............65
1. Detention and Prison Conditions.............................................................66
2. Expulsion, Extradition, and the Principle of Non-Refoulement................66
3. Vulnerable Persons and Special Protection..............................................67
4. Death penalty......................................................................................... 67
5. Ill-Treatment by Police and Security Forces.............................................67
6. Irreducible Life Sentences.......................................................................67
7. Non-refoulement : Deportation, expulsion or extradition of aliens..........67
8. Sexual and Gender-Based Violence.........................................................68
9. Treatment of Children and Minors...........................................................68
§6 Relationship between article 3 and other convention articles...................68
Chapter 10: Article 10 – Freedom of expression................................69
§1 General Considerations of Freedom of Expression (FoE)............................69
1. The Democratic Imperative.....................................................................69
2. Scope and Responsibilities......................................................................70
§2 Negative Obligations: The Framework for Lawful Restrictions...................70
1. Nature of the lawful restrictions..............................................................70
2. Conditions for the lawfulness..................................................................71
a) Prescribed by Law................................................................................ 71
b) Legitimate Aim.................................................................................... 71
c) Necessity in a Democratic Society.......................................................71
§3 Other subjects........................................................................................... 72
1. The Role of the Press............................................................................... 72
2. The Chilling Effect................................................................................... 73
3. Balancing equal (fundamental) rights.....................................................73
4. Examples................................................................................................ 75
§4 Positive obligations of the state under article 10.......................................76
4
, §5 Hate speech: a complex limitation on freedom of expression...................78
Chapter 11: Article 8 - The protection of privacy..............................80
§1 Introduction to Article 8 ECHR...................................................................80
§2 Right to respect for private life..................................................................81
1. Notion of private life............................................................................... 81
a) Personal sphere................................................................................... 81
b) Zone of interaction of a person with others.........................................82
2. Applications of Article 8: the negative obligations..................................82
3. Applications of Article 8: the positive obligation.....................................85
Chapter 12: Article 6 – Right to a fair trial........................................87
§1 Scope of application of art. 6 ECHR (and art. 14 CCPR).............................87
1. Civil matters............................................................................................ 87
a) Condition 1: dispute over rights and obligations.................................87
i) Existence of a dispute.......................................................................87
ii) Rights and obligations......................................................................88
iii) Object of the dispute.......................................................................88
iv) Proceedings in which the rights and obligations are “determined”. 88
b) Condition 2: civil character of the rights or obligations at issue..........89
i) An autonomous notion.......................................................................89
ii) Different categories of rights and obligations...................................89
iii) A possible alternative: all enforceable rights are civil rights?..........89
2. Criminal matters..................................................................................... 89
a) Condition 1: criminal charge................................................................89
b) Condition 2: determination of the criminal charge - stages of the
proceedings............................................................................................. 90
§2 Right to a court.......................................................................................... 90
1. Principle of the rule of law.......................................................................90
2. Right of access to a court........................................................................90
a) Principle............................................................................................... 90
b) Waiver.................................................................................................. 91
c) Limitations........................................................................................... 91
3. Right to a judicial determination of the dispute......................................91
4. Respect for the final determination by a court........................................92
§3 Structural and procedural guarantees.......................................................92
1. Tribunal established by law.....................................................................92
2. Independence and impartiality...............................................................92
a) Independence...................................................................................... 92
5
, b) Impartiality.......................................................................................... 92
3. Publicity of the proceedings....................................................................92
a) Public hearing...................................................................................... 92
b) Public pronouncement of the judgement.............................................92
4. Fair hearing............................................................................................. 93
a) In general............................................................................................. 93
i) Right to take part in the proceedings................................................93
ii) Adversarial character of the proceedings ........................................93
iii) Equality of arms .............................................................................. 93
iv) Evidence ......................................................................................... 93
v) Reasons of the decision ...................................................................93
vi) Consistency of the courts’ case law ................................................93
b) Specific guarantees in criminal cases..................................................93
i) Right to remain silent, privilege against self-incrimination ...............93
ii) Presumption of innocence ................................................................93
iii) Information of the nature and the cause of the accusation ............93
iv) Time and facilities for the preparation of the defence ....................93
v) Defence in person or through legal assistance ................................93
vi) Examination of witnesses (absent or anonymous witnesses) .........93
vii) Free assistance of an interpreter ...................................................93
viii) Review by a higher court...............................................................93
ix) Compensation for wrongful conviction ............................................93
x) Right not to be tried or punished twice ...........................................93
5. Reasonable time..................................................................................... 93
a) Period to be taken into account...........................................................93
b) Assessment of the reasonableness of the length of the proceedings . 93
c) Consequences of an undue delay........................................................93
d) Remedies against an undue delay.......................................................93
Chapter 13: Article 1 of the First Protocol – Right of property...........93
§1 Introduction to Article 1 of the First Protocol (A1P1)..................................93
1. Object of art. 1 of Prot. Nr. 1...................................................................94
a) The autonomous meaning of "possessions"........................................94
b) What is not covered by “possessions”.................................................95
§2 The Obligations of the State under A1P1...................................................95
1. Negative Obligations: The Prohibition of Interference.............................96
a) Deprivation of possessions..................................................................96
b) Control of the use of property..............................................................97
6
, c) Taxes, Other Contributions, and Penalties............................................98
d) Other interferences with the right of property (general rule)..............98
2. Positive Obligations of the State.............................................................99
Chapter 14: Economic, social and cultural rights............................100
§1 Introduction: ecosoc as human rights......................................................100
1. Attention for economic, social and cultural rights.................................100
2. Treaties on ESCR................................................................................... 101
3. European Social Charter........................................................................101
§2 Differences between civil & political rights and economic, social and
cultural rights............................................................................................... 102
1. Traditional differences - justiciability.....................................................102
2. Dichotomies are “false” ones................................................................102
§3 Obligations of states with respect to economic, social and cultural rights
..................................................................................................................... 103
1. Generalities........................................................................................... 103
2. Typology of obligations..........................................................................103
a) Negative obligations..........................................................................103
b) Positive obligations............................................................................ 104
i) Obligation to take positive measures..............................................104
ii) Obligation to protect individuals against violations of their ESCR’s 105
c) Principle of equality and non-discrimination......................................105
d) Applications....................................................................................... 105
iii) Complaints before European Committee of Social Rights..............105
iv) National Case Law.........................................................................106
International & European Human Rights
Law
Chapter 1: General introduction to human rights
To begin the study of international human rights law, we must first understand
the foundational concept of human rights. This involves understanding its core
definition, its primary functions, and its essential characteristics, all of which are
subjects of significant philosophical and legal debate. While the term is widely
recognized, its precise meaning and implications are complex and have evolved
considerably over time.
§1 Problem of definition
A useful starting point: different approaches to defining what constitutes a human
right:
7
, Philosophical Approach: The most common and simple definition holds
that human rights are "rights that all persons have by virtue of their
humanity." While this captures the essence of the concept, its abstract
nature offers little practical guidance on what these rights specifically
entail or how they operate. This approach focuses on the moral grounding
of rights.
Legal Approach: In contrast, the "black-letter approach" takes a more
pragmatic stance. From this perspective, human rights are defined as
those rights that have been formally codified in legal texts, such as
national constitutions, international conventions, and treaties. While this
provides concrete legal grounding, it is a functionally circular definition
that fails to answer the fundamental philosophical question of why certain
rights achieve this protected status.
§2 What they do
Human rights serve two primary functions within a legal and political order.
These functions help explain their purpose and their central role in modern
governance.
1. Temper state power: Historically and presently, human rights act as a
crucial check on the power of public authorities. They temper state
sovereignty by setting boundaries that governments cannot arbitrarily
cross, thereby preventing unwarranted interference with individual
freedom. This function is evident in both domestic constitutional law, which
limits a state's power internally, and international law, which provides an
external layer of accountability.
2. Protecting Human Dignity: Many modern human rights frameworks are
rooted in the concept of human dignity. This is particularly evident in post-
World War II constitutions, such as Germany's Basic Law, which begins with
the declaration: "Human dignity is inviolable. To respect and protect it is
the duty of all State authority." In this view, human rights are the legal
expression of the inherent worth and dignity of every individual.
However, "human dignity" is an indeterminated and often contested concept. The
famous Wackenheim v. France case (Human Rights Committee) concerning
"dwarf tossing" illustrates the deep conflict in its interpretation:
The Wackenheim v. France case is about two different interpretations of
“human dignity”. The case dealt with the prohibition of “dwarf tossing”, an
activity banned by local authorities on the grounds that it violated human
dignity and public order. Mr. Wackenheim, a participant in the practice,
challenged the ban, arguing that it infringed on his personal freedom and right
to work. However, the French Council of State, as well as the European
Commission of Human Rights and the UN Human Rights Committee, upheld the
ban, emphasizing that the protection of human dignity can take precedence
over individual autonomy. The case has become a significant example of how
the law balances personal liberty with the collective protection of fundamental
values.
8
, The State's View: The French Council of State prohibited the activity,
arguing that it violated a majoritarian view of human dignity, which it
considered an element of public order. This perspective treats dignity as a
collective value that the state must protect, even against an individual's
wishes.
The Individual's View: Mr. Wackenheim, the person with dwarfism
involved in the events, argued that dignity is inextricably linked to personal
autonomy and the freedom to choose one's profession. He contended that
barring him from his chosen work was a paternalistic act that denied his
dignity by limiting his self-determination.
This same tension between a collective, majoritarian concept of dignity and an
individual, autonomy-based concept appears in other societal debates, such as
those surrounding prostitution.
§3 Features of human rights
Finally, human rights are often described as having a set of essential features.
While these are foundational principles, they each come with important nuances
and qualifications.
Absolute: This feature suggests that human rights are the highest norms
in the legal order. However, very few rights are truly absolute in practice.
Some rights are, such as the anti-torture provision (Article 3 ECHR) or the
anti-slavery provision, but most are not. Most rights can be restricted
under specific, lawful conditions (e.g., Articles 8-11 ECHR) or even
suspended in times of emergency (Article 15 ECHR).
Universal: Logically, if human rights derive from one's humanity, they
must apply to all people everywhere. Yet, this claim is challenged by the
historical fact that the modern, codified concept of human rights is largely
a European creation. While the underlying ideas may resonate across
cultures, the implementation of these rights must often account for local
cultural context.
Inalienable: This means that individuals cannot waive or transfer their
fundamental rights. However, this feature is also qualified. For instance,
the exercise of certain rights can be conditioned or restricted for
individuals who are lawfully imprisoned.
Indivisible: As affirmed in the 1993 Vienna Declaration, all human rights
(whether civil, political, economic, social, or cultural) are interrelated,
interdependent, and of equal importance. This principle counters any
attempt to create a hierarchy of rights and insists that they must be
treated with the same emphasis.
Understanding these core concepts provides the necessary foundation for
exploring the historical journey that has shaped them.
§4 History of human rights and generations
Human rights are not timeless abstractions but, as Norberto Bobbio notes,
“historical rights” that evolved from medieval privileges into today’s
9
,international protection system for everyone. Understanding this development is
essential to grasp modern human rights law.
Medieval Charters: Texts like the Magna Carta and the Charter of
Kortenberg offered protections only to specific groups, not universal rights,
and thus cannot be seen as true human rights instruments.
Enlightenment Era: The American and French Revolutions introduced
constitutional catalogues of rights aimed at limiting state power and
protecting individuals.
The Social Question: In the 19th century, critics argued that formal
freedoms were meaningless without material conditions, highlighting the
need for social and economic rights.
Post-WWII Internationalization: The failure of national systems during
WWII led to an international framework establishing minimum standards
and offering remedies when states themselves fail to protect rights.
This historical progression has led to a common classification of human rights
into "three generations", a model that helps to organize and understand their
different functions and origins.
First Generation (Civil and Political Rights):
o Core Idea: These rights are focused on limiting the power of the
minimalist state, often described as the "État gendarme" (the
"police state"). They protect individual liberty from government
interference.
o State Obligation: The state's duty is primarily a "negative
obligation”: an obligation to stay away from interfering with
individual freedoms.
o Characteristics: These rights are considered immediately
enforceable, easily adjudicated by courts (justiciable), and have a
relatively low budgetary impact.
o Examples: The right to life, freedom of expression, and freedom of
association.
Second Generation (Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights):
o Core Idea: Arising from the "social question," these rights aim to
ensure a decent standard of living and enable meaningful
participation in society.
o State Obligation: The state's duty is primarily a "positive
obligation": it must take action to provide goods and services.
o Characteristics: These rights are often subject to "progressive
realization" based on available resources, have a higher budgetary
impact, and have traditionally been seen as less justiciable.
o Examples: The right to housing, the right to education, and the
right to health care.
Third Generation (Collective/Solidarity Rights):
10
International & European Human Rights Law.........................................................7
Chapter 1: General introduction to human rights...............................7
§1 Problem of definition.................................................................................... 7
§2 What they do............................................................................................... 8
§3 Features of human rights............................................................................. 9
§4 History of human rights and generations....................................................9
§5 Actors in the world of human rights...........................................................11
Chapter 2: Human rights: a matter of international concern.............13
§1Introduction................................................................................................ 14
§2 Antecedents.............................................................................................. 14
§3 Sovereign states – “Responsible Sovereignty”...........................................15
§4 Universality of human rights......................................................................17
§5 Sources of international human rights.......................................................17
Chapter 3: The United Nations........................................................19
§1 Introduction............................................................................................... 19
§2 Norms (1. UN Charter 2. UHDR 3. Treaties)................................................19
§3 Enforcement: 2 tracks............................................................................... 20
1. Treaty-Based Mechanisms.......................................................................20
2. Charter-Based Mechanisms.....................................................................22
Chapter 4: Regional human rights mechanisms................................24
§1 Introduction............................................................................................... 24
§2 The Council of Europe................................................................................ 24
§3 The European Union (EU)...........................................................................26
§4 Other Regional Systems............................................................................ 26
Chapter 5: Regional mechanisms: ECHR (part 2)...............................27
§1 Introduction: The ECHR as a Living System...............................................27
§2 Control Mechanism.................................................................................... 27
1. Organisation of the Court and its evolution............................................27
2. Contentious Jurisdiction of the ECHR: Bringing a Case to the ECtHR......28
a) Admissibility criteria............................................................................ 29
b) Articles 34 and 35 ECHR (juncto 47 Rules of Court).............................30
c) Procedure............................................................................................. 32
d) Examination of admissibility and merits..............................................32
e) Decision or judgment...........................................................................33
f) Rehearing by the Grand Chamber (panel of 5 Judges).........................33
1
, g) Execution of the judgement: Committee of Ministers..........................34
3. Advisory jurisdiction of the ECHR............................................................34
a) Advisory opinion at the request of a supreme court (Prot. No. 16)......34
b) Advisory opinion at the request of the Committee of Ministers of the
Council of Europe (art. 47-49 ECHR)........................................................34
4. Requests for information by the Secretary-General of the Council of
Europe (art. 52)........................................................................................... 35
5. Key Challenges Facing the ECHR System................................................35
a) Workload.............................................................................................. 35
b) Contestation of the legitimacy.............................................................36
§3 EU and ECHR............................................................................................. 36
1. The problem............................................................................................ 36
2. The ideal solution.................................................................................... 36
3. The intermediate way............................................................................. 36
4. Negotiations – opinion 2/13 (18 December 2014)...................................37
Chapter 6: Obligations imposed on states........................................37
§1 Secure HR’s to everyone within the jurisdiction........................................37
1. Principle: territorial jurisdiction...............................................................37
2. Exceptions: extra-territorial jurisdiction..................................................38
3. “Infraterritorial” jurisdiction....................................................................38
4. Specific situations................................................................................... 39
a) Instantaneous acts/omissions outside territory...................................39
b) Effects acts/omissions outside territory...............................................39
c) Soering Exception (cfr. Infra)................................................................39
d) Intensity link with jurisdiction..............................................................39
§2 Nature of the state’s obligation.................................................................40
1. Negative obligations............................................................................... 40
a) General................................................................................................ 40
b) Limitations (3 steps test).....................................................................41
2. Positive obligations................................................................................. 42
3. Margin of Appreciation............................................................................ 43
Chapter 7: Human rights in the domestic legal order........................45
§1 Status of the ECHR in National Law...........................................................45
1. Implementation of IHRL norms................................................................45
2. Right to a remedy................................................................................... 46
§2 Effects of a finding of violation of human rights by an international control
organ.............................................................................................................. 46
1. Execution of the Judgements (art. 46 ECHR)...........................................46
2
, a) Obligation to comply (res judicata)......................................................46
i) Towards the applicant........................................................................47
ii) General obligations...........................................................................47
b) Supervision of the execution of judgements........................................48
i) By the Committee of Ministers (art. 46 ECHR)...................................48
ii) By the Court itself............................................................................. 48
c) Infringement procedure (art. 46, 4-5)..................................................49
2. Authority of the ECtHR’s Interpretation (res interpretata).......................49
Chapter 8: Article 2 – Right to life....................................................50
§1 General Considerations of Article 2 ECHR..................................................50
1. The Supreme Value and Scope of the Right to Life.................................50
2. Scope of application: protection of the “life” of individuals....................50
3. Scope of the protection...........................................................................51
§2 The state's negative obligations under article 2........................................51
1. Principle: general prohibition on taking life.............................................51
2. Exceptions: the justified use of force......................................................51
a) Use of force, under certain conditions.................................................51
i) State responsibility for the interference with a person’s life..............51
ii) Situations susceptible to justify the use of force...............................52
iii) Cases............................................................................................... 52
b) Death penalty...................................................................................... 52
§3 The state's positive obligations under article 2.........................................53
1. Substantive/preventive obligation: to take preventive measures...........53
2. Procedural obligation: to conduct an effective investigation...................55
a) In case of death in suspicious circumstances......................................56
i) General conditions for an effective investigation..............................56
ii) Cases................................................................................................ 56
b) In case of loss of life due to events occurring under the responsibility
of the public authorities...........................................................................56
c) In case of unintentional loss of life, not involving the responsibility of
the state.................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 9: Article 3 ECHR – The prohibition of torture, inhuman and
degrading treatment & punishment.................................................58
§1 The prohibition of torture and ill-treatment...............................................58
§2 Article 3 ECHR: general.............................................................................. 59
1. The Absolute Character of the Prohibition...............................................59
2. The minimum level of severity................................................................60
a) Relative................................................................................................ 60
3
, b) Evolutive interpretation.......................................................................60
3. 3 categories of ill-treatment under article 3............................................61
a) Torture................................................................................................. 61
b) Inhuman treatment or punishment......................................................62
c) Degrading treatment or punishment...................................................63
§4 State obligations under article 3................................................................64
1. Negative Obligations............................................................................... 64
2. Positive Obligations................................................................................. 64
a) Substantive obligation: preventive measures......................................64
b) Procedural obligation: effective investigation......................................65
§5 Application of article 3 in specific contexts: key case law themes.............65
1. Detention and Prison Conditions.............................................................66
2. Expulsion, Extradition, and the Principle of Non-Refoulement................66
3. Vulnerable Persons and Special Protection..............................................67
4. Death penalty......................................................................................... 67
5. Ill-Treatment by Police and Security Forces.............................................67
6. Irreducible Life Sentences.......................................................................67
7. Non-refoulement : Deportation, expulsion or extradition of aliens..........67
8. Sexual and Gender-Based Violence.........................................................68
9. Treatment of Children and Minors...........................................................68
§6 Relationship between article 3 and other convention articles...................68
Chapter 10: Article 10 – Freedom of expression................................69
§1 General Considerations of Freedom of Expression (FoE)............................69
1. The Democratic Imperative.....................................................................69
2. Scope and Responsibilities......................................................................70
§2 Negative Obligations: The Framework for Lawful Restrictions...................70
1. Nature of the lawful restrictions..............................................................70
2. Conditions for the lawfulness..................................................................71
a) Prescribed by Law................................................................................ 71
b) Legitimate Aim.................................................................................... 71
c) Necessity in a Democratic Society.......................................................71
§3 Other subjects........................................................................................... 72
1. The Role of the Press............................................................................... 72
2. The Chilling Effect................................................................................... 73
3. Balancing equal (fundamental) rights.....................................................73
4. Examples................................................................................................ 75
§4 Positive obligations of the state under article 10.......................................76
4
, §5 Hate speech: a complex limitation on freedom of expression...................78
Chapter 11: Article 8 - The protection of privacy..............................80
§1 Introduction to Article 8 ECHR...................................................................80
§2 Right to respect for private life..................................................................81
1. Notion of private life............................................................................... 81
a) Personal sphere................................................................................... 81
b) Zone of interaction of a person with others.........................................82
2. Applications of Article 8: the negative obligations..................................82
3. Applications of Article 8: the positive obligation.....................................85
Chapter 12: Article 6 – Right to a fair trial........................................87
§1 Scope of application of art. 6 ECHR (and art. 14 CCPR).............................87
1. Civil matters............................................................................................ 87
a) Condition 1: dispute over rights and obligations.................................87
i) Existence of a dispute.......................................................................87
ii) Rights and obligations......................................................................88
iii) Object of the dispute.......................................................................88
iv) Proceedings in which the rights and obligations are “determined”. 88
b) Condition 2: civil character of the rights or obligations at issue..........89
i) An autonomous notion.......................................................................89
ii) Different categories of rights and obligations...................................89
iii) A possible alternative: all enforceable rights are civil rights?..........89
2. Criminal matters..................................................................................... 89
a) Condition 1: criminal charge................................................................89
b) Condition 2: determination of the criminal charge - stages of the
proceedings............................................................................................. 90
§2 Right to a court.......................................................................................... 90
1. Principle of the rule of law.......................................................................90
2. Right of access to a court........................................................................90
a) Principle............................................................................................... 90
b) Waiver.................................................................................................. 91
c) Limitations........................................................................................... 91
3. Right to a judicial determination of the dispute......................................91
4. Respect for the final determination by a court........................................92
§3 Structural and procedural guarantees.......................................................92
1. Tribunal established by law.....................................................................92
2. Independence and impartiality...............................................................92
a) Independence...................................................................................... 92
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, b) Impartiality.......................................................................................... 92
3. Publicity of the proceedings....................................................................92
a) Public hearing...................................................................................... 92
b) Public pronouncement of the judgement.............................................92
4. Fair hearing............................................................................................. 93
a) In general............................................................................................. 93
i) Right to take part in the proceedings................................................93
ii) Adversarial character of the proceedings ........................................93
iii) Equality of arms .............................................................................. 93
iv) Evidence ......................................................................................... 93
v) Reasons of the decision ...................................................................93
vi) Consistency of the courts’ case law ................................................93
b) Specific guarantees in criminal cases..................................................93
i) Right to remain silent, privilege against self-incrimination ...............93
ii) Presumption of innocence ................................................................93
iii) Information of the nature and the cause of the accusation ............93
iv) Time and facilities for the preparation of the defence ....................93
v) Defence in person or through legal assistance ................................93
vi) Examination of witnesses (absent or anonymous witnesses) .........93
vii) Free assistance of an interpreter ...................................................93
viii) Review by a higher court...............................................................93
ix) Compensation for wrongful conviction ............................................93
x) Right not to be tried or punished twice ...........................................93
5. Reasonable time..................................................................................... 93
a) Period to be taken into account...........................................................93
b) Assessment of the reasonableness of the length of the proceedings . 93
c) Consequences of an undue delay........................................................93
d) Remedies against an undue delay.......................................................93
Chapter 13: Article 1 of the First Protocol – Right of property...........93
§1 Introduction to Article 1 of the First Protocol (A1P1)..................................93
1. Object of art. 1 of Prot. Nr. 1...................................................................94
a) The autonomous meaning of "possessions"........................................94
b) What is not covered by “possessions”.................................................95
§2 The Obligations of the State under A1P1...................................................95
1. Negative Obligations: The Prohibition of Interference.............................96
a) Deprivation of possessions..................................................................96
b) Control of the use of property..............................................................97
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, c) Taxes, Other Contributions, and Penalties............................................98
d) Other interferences with the right of property (general rule)..............98
2. Positive Obligations of the State.............................................................99
Chapter 14: Economic, social and cultural rights............................100
§1 Introduction: ecosoc as human rights......................................................100
1. Attention for economic, social and cultural rights.................................100
2. Treaties on ESCR................................................................................... 101
3. European Social Charter........................................................................101
§2 Differences between civil & political rights and economic, social and
cultural rights............................................................................................... 102
1. Traditional differences - justiciability.....................................................102
2. Dichotomies are “false” ones................................................................102
§3 Obligations of states with respect to economic, social and cultural rights
..................................................................................................................... 103
1. Generalities........................................................................................... 103
2. Typology of obligations..........................................................................103
a) Negative obligations..........................................................................103
b) Positive obligations............................................................................ 104
i) Obligation to take positive measures..............................................104
ii) Obligation to protect individuals against violations of their ESCR’s 105
c) Principle of equality and non-discrimination......................................105
d) Applications....................................................................................... 105
iii) Complaints before European Committee of Social Rights..............105
iv) National Case Law.........................................................................106
International & European Human Rights
Law
Chapter 1: General introduction to human rights
To begin the study of international human rights law, we must first understand
the foundational concept of human rights. This involves understanding its core
definition, its primary functions, and its essential characteristics, all of which are
subjects of significant philosophical and legal debate. While the term is widely
recognized, its precise meaning and implications are complex and have evolved
considerably over time.
§1 Problem of definition
A useful starting point: different approaches to defining what constitutes a human
right:
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, Philosophical Approach: The most common and simple definition holds
that human rights are "rights that all persons have by virtue of their
humanity." While this captures the essence of the concept, its abstract
nature offers little practical guidance on what these rights specifically
entail or how they operate. This approach focuses on the moral grounding
of rights.
Legal Approach: In contrast, the "black-letter approach" takes a more
pragmatic stance. From this perspective, human rights are defined as
those rights that have been formally codified in legal texts, such as
national constitutions, international conventions, and treaties. While this
provides concrete legal grounding, it is a functionally circular definition
that fails to answer the fundamental philosophical question of why certain
rights achieve this protected status.
§2 What they do
Human rights serve two primary functions within a legal and political order.
These functions help explain their purpose and their central role in modern
governance.
1. Temper state power: Historically and presently, human rights act as a
crucial check on the power of public authorities. They temper state
sovereignty by setting boundaries that governments cannot arbitrarily
cross, thereby preventing unwarranted interference with individual
freedom. This function is evident in both domestic constitutional law, which
limits a state's power internally, and international law, which provides an
external layer of accountability.
2. Protecting Human Dignity: Many modern human rights frameworks are
rooted in the concept of human dignity. This is particularly evident in post-
World War II constitutions, such as Germany's Basic Law, which begins with
the declaration: "Human dignity is inviolable. To respect and protect it is
the duty of all State authority." In this view, human rights are the legal
expression of the inherent worth and dignity of every individual.
However, "human dignity" is an indeterminated and often contested concept. The
famous Wackenheim v. France case (Human Rights Committee) concerning
"dwarf tossing" illustrates the deep conflict in its interpretation:
The Wackenheim v. France case is about two different interpretations of
“human dignity”. The case dealt with the prohibition of “dwarf tossing”, an
activity banned by local authorities on the grounds that it violated human
dignity and public order. Mr. Wackenheim, a participant in the practice,
challenged the ban, arguing that it infringed on his personal freedom and right
to work. However, the French Council of State, as well as the European
Commission of Human Rights and the UN Human Rights Committee, upheld the
ban, emphasizing that the protection of human dignity can take precedence
over individual autonomy. The case has become a significant example of how
the law balances personal liberty with the collective protection of fundamental
values.
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, The State's View: The French Council of State prohibited the activity,
arguing that it violated a majoritarian view of human dignity, which it
considered an element of public order. This perspective treats dignity as a
collective value that the state must protect, even against an individual's
wishes.
The Individual's View: Mr. Wackenheim, the person with dwarfism
involved in the events, argued that dignity is inextricably linked to personal
autonomy and the freedom to choose one's profession. He contended that
barring him from his chosen work was a paternalistic act that denied his
dignity by limiting his self-determination.
This same tension between a collective, majoritarian concept of dignity and an
individual, autonomy-based concept appears in other societal debates, such as
those surrounding prostitution.
§3 Features of human rights
Finally, human rights are often described as having a set of essential features.
While these are foundational principles, they each come with important nuances
and qualifications.
Absolute: This feature suggests that human rights are the highest norms
in the legal order. However, very few rights are truly absolute in practice.
Some rights are, such as the anti-torture provision (Article 3 ECHR) or the
anti-slavery provision, but most are not. Most rights can be restricted
under specific, lawful conditions (e.g., Articles 8-11 ECHR) or even
suspended in times of emergency (Article 15 ECHR).
Universal: Logically, if human rights derive from one's humanity, they
must apply to all people everywhere. Yet, this claim is challenged by the
historical fact that the modern, codified concept of human rights is largely
a European creation. While the underlying ideas may resonate across
cultures, the implementation of these rights must often account for local
cultural context.
Inalienable: This means that individuals cannot waive or transfer their
fundamental rights. However, this feature is also qualified. For instance,
the exercise of certain rights can be conditioned or restricted for
individuals who are lawfully imprisoned.
Indivisible: As affirmed in the 1993 Vienna Declaration, all human rights
(whether civil, political, economic, social, or cultural) are interrelated,
interdependent, and of equal importance. This principle counters any
attempt to create a hierarchy of rights and insists that they must be
treated with the same emphasis.
Understanding these core concepts provides the necessary foundation for
exploring the historical journey that has shaped them.
§4 History of human rights and generations
Human rights are not timeless abstractions but, as Norberto Bobbio notes,
“historical rights” that evolved from medieval privileges into today’s
9
,international protection system for everyone. Understanding this development is
essential to grasp modern human rights law.
Medieval Charters: Texts like the Magna Carta and the Charter of
Kortenberg offered protections only to specific groups, not universal rights,
and thus cannot be seen as true human rights instruments.
Enlightenment Era: The American and French Revolutions introduced
constitutional catalogues of rights aimed at limiting state power and
protecting individuals.
The Social Question: In the 19th century, critics argued that formal
freedoms were meaningless without material conditions, highlighting the
need for social and economic rights.
Post-WWII Internationalization: The failure of national systems during
WWII led to an international framework establishing minimum standards
and offering remedies when states themselves fail to protect rights.
This historical progression has led to a common classification of human rights
into "three generations", a model that helps to organize and understand their
different functions and origins.
First Generation (Civil and Political Rights):
o Core Idea: These rights are focused on limiting the power of the
minimalist state, often described as the "État gendarme" (the
"police state"). They protect individual liberty from government
interference.
o State Obligation: The state's duty is primarily a "negative
obligation”: an obligation to stay away from interfering with
individual freedoms.
o Characteristics: These rights are considered immediately
enforceable, easily adjudicated by courts (justiciable), and have a
relatively low budgetary impact.
o Examples: The right to life, freedom of expression, and freedom of
association.
Second Generation (Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights):
o Core Idea: Arising from the "social question," these rights aim to
ensure a decent standard of living and enable meaningful
participation in society.
o State Obligation: The state's duty is primarily a "positive
obligation": it must take action to provide goods and services.
o Characteristics: These rights are often subject to "progressive
realization" based on available resources, have a higher budgetary
impact, and have traditionally been seen as less justiciable.
o Examples: The right to housing, the right to education, and the
right to health care.
Third Generation (Collective/Solidarity Rights):
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