PATHOPHYSIOLOGY FINAL EXAM
STUDY GUIDE 2025/2026
Lab Value of Potassium (K) - ANSWERS3.5 - 5.0
Lab Value of Magnesium (Mg) - ANSWERS1.8 - 3.0
Lab Value of Calcium (Ca) - ANSWERS8.5 - 10.5
Lab Value of Sodium (Na) - ANSWERS135 - 145
Lab Value of Phosphorus (P) - ANSWERS2.5 - 4.5
Lab Value of pH - ANSWERS7.35 - 7.45
Lab Value of CO2 - ANSWERS35-45
Lab Value of HCO3 - ANSWERS22-26
What are the symptoms of hypokalemia vs hyperkalemia? - ANSWERS- hypokalemia:
confusion; EKG changes; cardiac dysrhythmias; muscle cramps, shallow respirations;
polyuria; and polydipsia
- hyperkalemia: EKG changes; cardiac arrest; respiratory distress; muscle cramps;
stomach cramps; diarrhea
What are the symptoms of hyponatremia vs hypernatremia? - ANSWERS-
hyponatremia: stupor; coma; confusion; headache; edema; apprehension; and feeling of
impending doom
- hypernatremia: seizures; coma; fever; tachycardia; hypotension; dry mucous
membranes; polydipsia; and headache
What are the symptoms of hypocalcemia vs hypercalcemia? - ANSWERS-
hypocalcemia: bone pain; osteomalacia; positive Chvostek sign; positive Trousseau
sign; numbness and tingling; muscle cramps; hyperactive reflexes; and tetany
- hypercalcemia: renal calculi; renal insufficiency; osteoporosis; stupor; coma; loss of
muscle tone; shortened QT; and AV blocks
What are some noninvasive tests for assessing the client for hypocalcemia? -
ANSWERSPositive Chvostek and Trousseau signs are indicative of hypocalcemia
, What symptoms may you see in a patient with fluid volume excess vs deficit? -
ANSWERS- excess: rapid weight gain; edema in the arms, legs and face; swelling in
abdomen; cramping, headache, and stomach bloating; shortness of breath;
hypertension; CHF
- deficit: altered mental status; weakness; thirst; weight loss; concentrated urine;
decreased urine output; dry mucous membranes; sunken appearance of the eyes;
sunken fontanels in infants; weak pulse; tachycardia
What fracture is more common in young children? - ANSWERSgreenstick; due to child's
bone having some degree of flex due to cartilage ossification process and bone salts
that have not fully impregnated the tissue
Difference between atrophy vs hypertrophy? - ANSWERS- atrophy: decrease in cell
size
- hypertrophy: increase in cell size
Difference between hyperplasia vs metaplasia vs dysplasia? - ANSWERS- hyperplasia:
increase in number of cells
- metaplasia: replacement of adult cells
- dysplasia: deranged cell growth of a specific tissue
Blood flow through the heart: - ANSWERS- Superior/inferior vena cava
- Right atrium
- tricuspid valve
- right ventricle
- pulmonary semilunar valve
- pulmonary artery
- lungs for oxygenation
- pulmonary vein
- left atrium
- mitral valve (bicuspid)
- left ventricle
- aortic valve
- aorta
- systemic circulation
What is hypertension vs hypotension vs orthostatic hypotension? - ANSWERS-
hypertension: sustained elevation in blood pressure that will end in organ damage and
vessel changes; normal systolic (top) should be less than 120 & diastolic (bottom)
should be less than 80
STUDY GUIDE 2025/2026
Lab Value of Potassium (K) - ANSWERS3.5 - 5.0
Lab Value of Magnesium (Mg) - ANSWERS1.8 - 3.0
Lab Value of Calcium (Ca) - ANSWERS8.5 - 10.5
Lab Value of Sodium (Na) - ANSWERS135 - 145
Lab Value of Phosphorus (P) - ANSWERS2.5 - 4.5
Lab Value of pH - ANSWERS7.35 - 7.45
Lab Value of CO2 - ANSWERS35-45
Lab Value of HCO3 - ANSWERS22-26
What are the symptoms of hypokalemia vs hyperkalemia? - ANSWERS- hypokalemia:
confusion; EKG changes; cardiac dysrhythmias; muscle cramps, shallow respirations;
polyuria; and polydipsia
- hyperkalemia: EKG changes; cardiac arrest; respiratory distress; muscle cramps;
stomach cramps; diarrhea
What are the symptoms of hyponatremia vs hypernatremia? - ANSWERS-
hyponatremia: stupor; coma; confusion; headache; edema; apprehension; and feeling of
impending doom
- hypernatremia: seizures; coma; fever; tachycardia; hypotension; dry mucous
membranes; polydipsia; and headache
What are the symptoms of hypocalcemia vs hypercalcemia? - ANSWERS-
hypocalcemia: bone pain; osteomalacia; positive Chvostek sign; positive Trousseau
sign; numbness and tingling; muscle cramps; hyperactive reflexes; and tetany
- hypercalcemia: renal calculi; renal insufficiency; osteoporosis; stupor; coma; loss of
muscle tone; shortened QT; and AV blocks
What are some noninvasive tests for assessing the client for hypocalcemia? -
ANSWERSPositive Chvostek and Trousseau signs are indicative of hypocalcemia
, What symptoms may you see in a patient with fluid volume excess vs deficit? -
ANSWERS- excess: rapid weight gain; edema in the arms, legs and face; swelling in
abdomen; cramping, headache, and stomach bloating; shortness of breath;
hypertension; CHF
- deficit: altered mental status; weakness; thirst; weight loss; concentrated urine;
decreased urine output; dry mucous membranes; sunken appearance of the eyes;
sunken fontanels in infants; weak pulse; tachycardia
What fracture is more common in young children? - ANSWERSgreenstick; due to child's
bone having some degree of flex due to cartilage ossification process and bone salts
that have not fully impregnated the tissue
Difference between atrophy vs hypertrophy? - ANSWERS- atrophy: decrease in cell
size
- hypertrophy: increase in cell size
Difference between hyperplasia vs metaplasia vs dysplasia? - ANSWERS- hyperplasia:
increase in number of cells
- metaplasia: replacement of adult cells
- dysplasia: deranged cell growth of a specific tissue
Blood flow through the heart: - ANSWERS- Superior/inferior vena cava
- Right atrium
- tricuspid valve
- right ventricle
- pulmonary semilunar valve
- pulmonary artery
- lungs for oxygenation
- pulmonary vein
- left atrium
- mitral valve (bicuspid)
- left ventricle
- aortic valve
- aorta
- systemic circulation
What is hypertension vs hypotension vs orthostatic hypotension? - ANSWERS-
hypertension: sustained elevation in blood pressure that will end in organ damage and
vessel changes; normal systolic (top) should be less than 120 & diastolic (bottom)
should be less than 80
