Table of Content
1. ORIGIN AND CONCEPTS............................................................................................................................... 5
OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. HISTORY ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
A. THE ORIGIN ............................................................................................................................................................ 5
B. EVOLUTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
C. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS ..................................................................................................................................... 10
2. VICTIMOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES AND TYPOLOGIES ................................................................................... 12
1. INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE AND HUMANISM ........................................................................................................... 12
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF VICTIMOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 12
DISCUSSION ON THE CONCEPT OF THE VICTIM HAS IMPLICATIONS FOR: .................................................................................. 12
DISTINCTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND HUMANISM (FATTAH, 1992). ..................................................................................... 12
2. THE POSITIVIST PERSPECTIVE ............................................................................................................................. 12
MIERS (1989): ......................................................................................................................................................... 13
CORRESPONDS TO: ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
POSITIVISM: TWO CORE ASSUMPTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 13
WHAT ABOUT THE VICTIM? .......................................................................................................................................... 14
CONCLUSION: ............................................................................................................................................................ 14
ALSO POLITICAL IMPACT à LINKED TO “POLITICAL CONSERVATISM” ..................................................................................... 14
3. THE RADICAL PERSPECTIVE ................................................................................................................................ 15
OCCASION: ............................................................................................................................................................... 16
FOUND QUICK RESONANCE WITHIN LEFT REALISM IN CRIMINOLOGY. ..................................................................................... 16
VICTIMOLOGICAL TRANSLATION: ................................................................................................................................... 16
DOES NOT COMPLETELY DETACH FROM POSITIVISTIC VICTIMOLOGY....................................................................................... 16
MORE POLITICAL ATTENTION TO PREVENTION OF VICTIMIZATION RATHER THAN CRIME PREVENTION FROM THE 1980S. .................. 17
EARLY 2000S RENEWED CALL FOR RADICAL VICTIMOLOGY .................................................................................................. 17
NUMBER OF CRITICISMS: ............................................................................................................................................. 17
4. THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ............................................................................................................................... 17
SIGNIFICANT INFLUENCE WITHIN THE RADICAL PERSPECTIVE, AS FEMINIST RESEARCH: ............................................................... 17
UNTIL THE 1970S, THE MAN WAS THE NORM IN CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH. ........................................................................ 17
1. FEMINIST EMPIRICISM ............................................................................................................................................. 18
SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS BY POINTING OUT: .............................................................................................................. 18
2. FEMINIST STANDPOINT ............................................................................................................................................ 18
3. POSTMODERN FEMINISM ......................................................................................................................................... 19
5. THE CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE................................................................................................................................ 19
EMERGES FROM CRITICISM OF THE RADICAL PERSPECTIVE. .................................................................................................. 19
NOT SEEKING PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES OF CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION, BUT STUDYING THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF
VICTIMIZATION........................................................................................................................................................... 19
CORE THEME IS CRITICALLY APPROACHING THE CONCEPT OF THE VICTIM AND THE CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH SUCH A CONCEPT CAN BE
USED. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 19
INSPIRED BY SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM. ........................................................................................................................ 19
CRITICAL VICTIMOLOGY EXPLORES HOW INDIVIDUALS LIVE WITHIN AND RESIST THE STRUCTURAL CONDITIONS IN WHICH THEY FIND
THEMSELVES.............................................................................................................................................................. 20
CRITIQUE OF CRITICAL VICTIMOLOGY: ............................................................................................................................. 20
6. HODGEPODGE? ............................................................................................................................................. 20
CAN WE SEPARATE ACADEMIC FROM HUMANISTIC (IDEOLOGICAL) WITHIN VICTIMOLOGY? ........................................................ 20
3. ETIOLOGICAL VICTIMOLOGY AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VICTIMIZATION AND PERCEPTION OF
INSECURITY................................................................................................................................................... 21
1
,1. FIRST VICTIMOLOGICAL STUDIES ......................................................................................................................... 21
ETIOLOGICAL VICTIMOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 21
HANS VAN HENTIG’S VICTIM TYPOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 21
SCHAFER’S VICTIM PRECIPITATION TYPOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 22
CLASSICAL THEORIES ........................................................................................................................................... 22
TWO IMPORTANT THEORIES: ........................................................................................................................................ 22
LIFESTYLE THEORY ............................................................................................................................................. 23
ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY .................................................................................................................................. 23
GENERAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY .......................................................................................................................... 24
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
SOCIAL CONTEXT ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
GUEST LECTURE JULIE WARTELL: POLICE RESPONSE TO CRIME VICTIMS ........................................................ 26
UNDERSTANDING VICTIMS FOR EFFECTIVE RESPONSE .................................................................................................. 26
CASE STUDY: CHULA VISTA, CALIFORNIA (USA) – DOMESTIV VIOLENCE ......................................................................... 26
IMPACT ON COMMUNITY ............................................................................................................................................. 26
NEED MORE THAN SERVICES ........................................................................................................................................ 26
DV CASE FLOS ........................................................................................................................................................... 26
REPEAT INCIDENTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 26
SUSPECTS AND VICTIMS ............................................................................................................................................... 26
ONE YEAR EXPERIMENT ............................................................................................................................................... 26
POLICE RESPONSE ...................................................................................................................................................... 27
NO DV CRIME: 60% OF CFS ....................................................................................................................................... 27
FIRST DV CRIME ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
IMPACT CRIMES/CALLS ............................................................................................................................................... 27
CASE STUDY: AUSTIN, TEXAS (USA) – SEXUAL ASSAULT ............................................................................................. 27
SEX CRIMES UNIT CASES .............................................................................................................................................. 27
CASE STUDY: CHESHIRE COUNTY (UK) – CHILD EXPLOITATION ..................................................................................... 28
ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................................................. 28
RESPONSE................................................................................................................................................................. 28
ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
CASE STUDY: BOULDER, COLORADO (USA) – ENCAMPMENT HARMS ............................................................................ 28
SCANNING: DEFINING THE PROBLEM .............................................................................................................................. 28
SCANNING: DATA ....................................................................................................................................................... 28
ANALYSIS: UNDERSTANDING THE UNDERLYING CONDITIONS ............................................................................................... 29
HARM CLASSIFICATION ................................................................................................................................................ 29
ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................................................. 29
ANALYSIS – ENCAMPMENT REVIEWS .............................................................................................................................. 29
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................................. 29
4. MEASUREMENT OF VICTIMIZATION .......................................................................................................... 30
AGENDA .......................................................................................................................................................... 30
1. REGISTERED CRIME ......................................................................................................................................... 30
FUNNELING PROCESS .................................................................................................................................................. 31
GENERAL PROBLEMS IN POLICE STATISTICS ....................................................................................................................... 32
DARK NUMBER .......................................................................................................................................................... 32
THE FIGURATIVE FUNNEL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE ................................................................................................................. 32
SELECTION MECHANISMS ............................................................................................................................................. 33
PROACTIVE ATTITUDE OF POLICE SERVICES ....................................................................................................................... 33
ORGANIZATION OF THE POLICE FORCES ........................................................................................................................... 33
SPECIFIC POLICY DIRECTIVES .......................................................................................................................................... 34
VISIBILITY OF CRIMES................................................................................................................................................... 34
(UN-)AWARENESS OF THE PERPETRATOR ......................................................................................................................... 34
REPORT BY VICTIMS OR WITNESSES ................................................................................................................................ 34
INDIVIDUAL AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR ................................................................................................................................ 34
RELATION PERPETRATOR / VICTIM.................................................................................................................................. 34
DETECTION PROBABILITY .............................................................................................................................................. 34
2
,ECONOMIC REASONS................................................................................................................................................... 35
WILLINGNESS TO REPORT TO THE POLICE ......................................................................................................................... 35
CRIME DROP ............................................................................................................................................................. 35
2. HIDDEN CRIME .............................................................................................................................................. 35
HISTORY ................................................................................................................................................................... 35
CRIMINOLOGICAL UTILITY OF VICTIM SURVEY .................................................................................................................... 37
WEAKNESSES OF VICTIMIZATION SURVEYS ....................................................................................................................... 37
5. VICTIM SURVEYS: THE SAFETY MONITOR .................................................................................................. 41
THE SAFETY MONITOR ........................................................................................................................................ 41
MODULES ................................................................................................................................................................. 41
SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................................................ 42
SURVEY METHOD ....................................................................................................................................................... 42
VARIOUS SWEEPS ....................................................................................................................................................... 43
RESULTS FROM THE SAFETY MONITOR .................................................................................................................... 44
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 44
WEIGHTING .............................................................................................................................................................. 44
MODULE NEIGHBORHOOD ISSUES ......................................................................................................................... 44
MODULE SECURITY ISSUES ................................................................................................................................... 45
MODULE VICTIMIZATION AND REPORTING BEHAVIOR ................................................................................................ 46
MODULE POLICE PERFORMANCE ........................................................................................................................... 47
IN SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................... 47
NEW SAFETY MONITOR 2025? ............................................................................................................................ 47
6. THE VICTIM AND THE SOCIETAL REACTION ................................................................................................ 48
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 48
1. THE VICTIM AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCT ............................................................................................................. 48
EMOTIONS ARE SEEN AS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS ................................................................................................................... 48
SUFFERING AT A DISTANCE (BOLTANSKI, 1999)................................................................................................................ 49
LARGE-SCALE MARKETING OF VICTIMS’ EXPERIENCES. ........................................................................................................ 49
2. GAINING VICTIM STATUS ................................................................................................................................. 49
A. THE “IDEAL” VICTIM ............................................................................................................................................... 49
2. GAINING A SOCIAL STATUS ............................................................................................................................... 50
B. THE “CULT” OF “TRUE” VICTIMHOOD ........................................................................................................................ 50
2. ACQUIRING A VICTIM STATUS ............................................................................................................................ 51
C. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................................... 51
3. SOCIETAL REACTIONS TO VICTIMS ....................................................................................................................... 51
PHENOMENA INFLUENCING SOCIAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS VICTIMHOOD AND VICTIMS: .............................................................. 51
PHENOMENA AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS INFLUENCING RESPONSES ........................................................................................ 52
4. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................ 52
7. THE CONSEQUENCES OF VICTIMHOOD ...................................................................................................... 53
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 53
2. THE CONSEQUENCES OF VICTIMHOOD ................................................................................................................. 53
A. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT .................................................................................................................................... 53
B. THE EMOTIONAL IMPACT ......................................................................................................................................... 54
C. THE BEHAVIORAL IMPACT ......................................................................................................................................... 56
D. THE PHYSICAL IMPACT ............................................................................................................................................. 56
THE FINANCIAL IMPACT................................................................................................................................................ 56
3. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SEVERITY OF THE CONSEQUENCES ................................................................................... 57
PRE-VICTIMIZATION. ................................................................................................................................................... 57
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE EVENT........................................................................................................................... 57
3
, POST-VICTIMIZATION. ................................................................................................................................................. 57
SUPPORT AND COPING. ............................................................................................................................................... 57
4. DIVERSITY AMONG VICTIMS .............................................................................................................................. 58
LITTLE RESEARCH ON MALE VICTIMS. .............................................................................................................................. 58
ETHNIC MINORITIES .................................................................................................................................................... 58
BELIEF SYSTEMS AND VICTIMHOOD – ETHNIC MINORITIES ................................................................................................... 58
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF DOMINANT KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION. ......................................................................................... 59
8. RESTORATIVE JUSTICE ............................................................................................................................... 60
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 60
1. THE SOCIETAL CONTEXT ................................................................................................................................... 60
RESPONSES TO THE NEW SOCIAL DEFENSE ...................................................................................................................... 61
ABOLITIONISM – LOUK HULSMAN ................................................................................................................................. 61
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE .................................................................................................................................................. 61
REINTEGRATIVE SHAMING – JOHN BRAITHWAITE .............................................................................................................. 62
2. THE CONCEPT ................................................................................................................................................ 62
MARSHALL, 1999: ..................................................................................................................................................... 62
NILS CHRISTIE (1977): ............................................................................................................................................... 63
3. PROGRAMS .................................................................................................................................................. 64
BELGIUM: JUVENILES .................................................................................................................................................. 65
BELGIUM: ADULTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 65
4. LIMITATIONS, CHALLENGES, AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS ..................................................................................... 66
9. VERBAL VIOLENCE, HATE SPEECH, AND HATE CRIMES ............................................................................... 67
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
1. VERBAL VIOLENCE .......................................................................................................................................... 67
THE POWER OF WORDS AND LANGUAGE. ........................................................................................................................ 67
2. HATE SPEECH ................................................................................................................................................ 67
CHARACTERISTICS: ...................................................................................................................................................... 68
CONSEQUENCES (GELBER & MCNAMARA, 2016): ........................................................................................................... 68
TO CRIMINALIZE OR NOT? ............................................................................................................................................ 69
APPROACH TO HATE SPEECH: ........................................................................................................................................ 70
3. HATE CRIMES ................................................................................................................................................ 70
10. VICTIMS IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM ............................................................................................ 74
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 74
1. VICTIMS IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................... 74
1. DETECTION AND PROSECUTION.................................................................................................................................. 74
2. SENTENCING .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
3. EXECUTION OF THE SENTENCE ................................................................................................................................... 76
4. EXECUTION OF PENALTIES ........................................................................................................................................ 77
2. THE NEEDS OF VICTIMS .................................................................................................................................... 78
3. VICTIM SUPPORT ........................................................................................................................................... 78
VICTIM SUPPORT ....................................................................................................................................................... 79
POLICE VICTIM TREATMENT – LEGAL FRAMEWORK: .......................................................................................................... 79
CONSULTATION STRUCTURES:....................................................................................................................................... 80
VICTIM RECEPTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 81
VICTIM ASSISTANCE .................................................................................................................................................... 83
4. EVALUATION OF THE VICTIM POLICY .................................................................................................................... 84
REFERRAL MODEL ...................................................................................................................................................... 84
4
1. ORIGIN AND CONCEPTS............................................................................................................................... 5
OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. HISTORY ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
A. THE ORIGIN ............................................................................................................................................................ 5
B. EVOLUTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
C. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS ..................................................................................................................................... 10
2. VICTIMOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES AND TYPOLOGIES ................................................................................... 12
1. INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE AND HUMANISM ........................................................................................................... 12
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF VICTIMOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 12
DISCUSSION ON THE CONCEPT OF THE VICTIM HAS IMPLICATIONS FOR: .................................................................................. 12
DISTINCTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND HUMANISM (FATTAH, 1992). ..................................................................................... 12
2. THE POSITIVIST PERSPECTIVE ............................................................................................................................. 12
MIERS (1989): ......................................................................................................................................................... 13
CORRESPONDS TO: ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
POSITIVISM: TWO CORE ASSUMPTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 13
WHAT ABOUT THE VICTIM? .......................................................................................................................................... 14
CONCLUSION: ............................................................................................................................................................ 14
ALSO POLITICAL IMPACT à LINKED TO “POLITICAL CONSERVATISM” ..................................................................................... 14
3. THE RADICAL PERSPECTIVE ................................................................................................................................ 15
OCCASION: ............................................................................................................................................................... 16
FOUND QUICK RESONANCE WITHIN LEFT REALISM IN CRIMINOLOGY. ..................................................................................... 16
VICTIMOLOGICAL TRANSLATION: ................................................................................................................................... 16
DOES NOT COMPLETELY DETACH FROM POSITIVISTIC VICTIMOLOGY....................................................................................... 16
MORE POLITICAL ATTENTION TO PREVENTION OF VICTIMIZATION RATHER THAN CRIME PREVENTION FROM THE 1980S. .................. 17
EARLY 2000S RENEWED CALL FOR RADICAL VICTIMOLOGY .................................................................................................. 17
NUMBER OF CRITICISMS: ............................................................................................................................................. 17
4. THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ............................................................................................................................... 17
SIGNIFICANT INFLUENCE WITHIN THE RADICAL PERSPECTIVE, AS FEMINIST RESEARCH: ............................................................... 17
UNTIL THE 1970S, THE MAN WAS THE NORM IN CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH. ........................................................................ 17
1. FEMINIST EMPIRICISM ............................................................................................................................................. 18
SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS BY POINTING OUT: .............................................................................................................. 18
2. FEMINIST STANDPOINT ............................................................................................................................................ 18
3. POSTMODERN FEMINISM ......................................................................................................................................... 19
5. THE CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE................................................................................................................................ 19
EMERGES FROM CRITICISM OF THE RADICAL PERSPECTIVE. .................................................................................................. 19
NOT SEEKING PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES OF CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION, BUT STUDYING THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF
VICTIMIZATION........................................................................................................................................................... 19
CORE THEME IS CRITICALLY APPROACHING THE CONCEPT OF THE VICTIM AND THE CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH SUCH A CONCEPT CAN BE
USED. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 19
INSPIRED BY SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM. ........................................................................................................................ 19
CRITICAL VICTIMOLOGY EXPLORES HOW INDIVIDUALS LIVE WITHIN AND RESIST THE STRUCTURAL CONDITIONS IN WHICH THEY FIND
THEMSELVES.............................................................................................................................................................. 20
CRITIQUE OF CRITICAL VICTIMOLOGY: ............................................................................................................................. 20
6. HODGEPODGE? ............................................................................................................................................. 20
CAN WE SEPARATE ACADEMIC FROM HUMANISTIC (IDEOLOGICAL) WITHIN VICTIMOLOGY? ........................................................ 20
3. ETIOLOGICAL VICTIMOLOGY AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VICTIMIZATION AND PERCEPTION OF
INSECURITY................................................................................................................................................... 21
1
,1. FIRST VICTIMOLOGICAL STUDIES ......................................................................................................................... 21
ETIOLOGICAL VICTIMOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 21
HANS VAN HENTIG’S VICTIM TYPOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 21
SCHAFER’S VICTIM PRECIPITATION TYPOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 22
CLASSICAL THEORIES ........................................................................................................................................... 22
TWO IMPORTANT THEORIES: ........................................................................................................................................ 22
LIFESTYLE THEORY ............................................................................................................................................. 23
ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY .................................................................................................................................. 23
GENERAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY .......................................................................................................................... 24
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
SOCIAL CONTEXT ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
GUEST LECTURE JULIE WARTELL: POLICE RESPONSE TO CRIME VICTIMS ........................................................ 26
UNDERSTANDING VICTIMS FOR EFFECTIVE RESPONSE .................................................................................................. 26
CASE STUDY: CHULA VISTA, CALIFORNIA (USA) – DOMESTIV VIOLENCE ......................................................................... 26
IMPACT ON COMMUNITY ............................................................................................................................................. 26
NEED MORE THAN SERVICES ........................................................................................................................................ 26
DV CASE FLOS ........................................................................................................................................................... 26
REPEAT INCIDENTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 26
SUSPECTS AND VICTIMS ............................................................................................................................................... 26
ONE YEAR EXPERIMENT ............................................................................................................................................... 26
POLICE RESPONSE ...................................................................................................................................................... 27
NO DV CRIME: 60% OF CFS ....................................................................................................................................... 27
FIRST DV CRIME ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
IMPACT CRIMES/CALLS ............................................................................................................................................... 27
CASE STUDY: AUSTIN, TEXAS (USA) – SEXUAL ASSAULT ............................................................................................. 27
SEX CRIMES UNIT CASES .............................................................................................................................................. 27
CASE STUDY: CHESHIRE COUNTY (UK) – CHILD EXPLOITATION ..................................................................................... 28
ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................................................. 28
RESPONSE................................................................................................................................................................. 28
ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
CASE STUDY: BOULDER, COLORADO (USA) – ENCAMPMENT HARMS ............................................................................ 28
SCANNING: DEFINING THE PROBLEM .............................................................................................................................. 28
SCANNING: DATA ....................................................................................................................................................... 28
ANALYSIS: UNDERSTANDING THE UNDERLYING CONDITIONS ............................................................................................... 29
HARM CLASSIFICATION ................................................................................................................................................ 29
ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................................................. 29
ANALYSIS – ENCAMPMENT REVIEWS .............................................................................................................................. 29
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................................. 29
4. MEASUREMENT OF VICTIMIZATION .......................................................................................................... 30
AGENDA .......................................................................................................................................................... 30
1. REGISTERED CRIME ......................................................................................................................................... 30
FUNNELING PROCESS .................................................................................................................................................. 31
GENERAL PROBLEMS IN POLICE STATISTICS ....................................................................................................................... 32
DARK NUMBER .......................................................................................................................................................... 32
THE FIGURATIVE FUNNEL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE ................................................................................................................. 32
SELECTION MECHANISMS ............................................................................................................................................. 33
PROACTIVE ATTITUDE OF POLICE SERVICES ....................................................................................................................... 33
ORGANIZATION OF THE POLICE FORCES ........................................................................................................................... 33
SPECIFIC POLICY DIRECTIVES .......................................................................................................................................... 34
VISIBILITY OF CRIMES................................................................................................................................................... 34
(UN-)AWARENESS OF THE PERPETRATOR ......................................................................................................................... 34
REPORT BY VICTIMS OR WITNESSES ................................................................................................................................ 34
INDIVIDUAL AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR ................................................................................................................................ 34
RELATION PERPETRATOR / VICTIM.................................................................................................................................. 34
DETECTION PROBABILITY .............................................................................................................................................. 34
2
,ECONOMIC REASONS................................................................................................................................................... 35
WILLINGNESS TO REPORT TO THE POLICE ......................................................................................................................... 35
CRIME DROP ............................................................................................................................................................. 35
2. HIDDEN CRIME .............................................................................................................................................. 35
HISTORY ................................................................................................................................................................... 35
CRIMINOLOGICAL UTILITY OF VICTIM SURVEY .................................................................................................................... 37
WEAKNESSES OF VICTIMIZATION SURVEYS ....................................................................................................................... 37
5. VICTIM SURVEYS: THE SAFETY MONITOR .................................................................................................. 41
THE SAFETY MONITOR ........................................................................................................................................ 41
MODULES ................................................................................................................................................................. 41
SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................................................ 42
SURVEY METHOD ....................................................................................................................................................... 42
VARIOUS SWEEPS ....................................................................................................................................................... 43
RESULTS FROM THE SAFETY MONITOR .................................................................................................................... 44
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 44
WEIGHTING .............................................................................................................................................................. 44
MODULE NEIGHBORHOOD ISSUES ......................................................................................................................... 44
MODULE SECURITY ISSUES ................................................................................................................................... 45
MODULE VICTIMIZATION AND REPORTING BEHAVIOR ................................................................................................ 46
MODULE POLICE PERFORMANCE ........................................................................................................................... 47
IN SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................... 47
NEW SAFETY MONITOR 2025? ............................................................................................................................ 47
6. THE VICTIM AND THE SOCIETAL REACTION ................................................................................................ 48
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 48
1. THE VICTIM AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCT ............................................................................................................. 48
EMOTIONS ARE SEEN AS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS ................................................................................................................... 48
SUFFERING AT A DISTANCE (BOLTANSKI, 1999)................................................................................................................ 49
LARGE-SCALE MARKETING OF VICTIMS’ EXPERIENCES. ........................................................................................................ 49
2. GAINING VICTIM STATUS ................................................................................................................................. 49
A. THE “IDEAL” VICTIM ............................................................................................................................................... 49
2. GAINING A SOCIAL STATUS ............................................................................................................................... 50
B. THE “CULT” OF “TRUE” VICTIMHOOD ........................................................................................................................ 50
2. ACQUIRING A VICTIM STATUS ............................................................................................................................ 51
C. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................................... 51
3. SOCIETAL REACTIONS TO VICTIMS ....................................................................................................................... 51
PHENOMENA INFLUENCING SOCIAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS VICTIMHOOD AND VICTIMS: .............................................................. 51
PHENOMENA AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS INFLUENCING RESPONSES ........................................................................................ 52
4. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................ 52
7. THE CONSEQUENCES OF VICTIMHOOD ...................................................................................................... 53
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 53
2. THE CONSEQUENCES OF VICTIMHOOD ................................................................................................................. 53
A. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT .................................................................................................................................... 53
B. THE EMOTIONAL IMPACT ......................................................................................................................................... 54
C. THE BEHAVIORAL IMPACT ......................................................................................................................................... 56
D. THE PHYSICAL IMPACT ............................................................................................................................................. 56
THE FINANCIAL IMPACT................................................................................................................................................ 56
3. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SEVERITY OF THE CONSEQUENCES ................................................................................... 57
PRE-VICTIMIZATION. ................................................................................................................................................... 57
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE EVENT........................................................................................................................... 57
3
, POST-VICTIMIZATION. ................................................................................................................................................. 57
SUPPORT AND COPING. ............................................................................................................................................... 57
4. DIVERSITY AMONG VICTIMS .............................................................................................................................. 58
LITTLE RESEARCH ON MALE VICTIMS. .............................................................................................................................. 58
ETHNIC MINORITIES .................................................................................................................................................... 58
BELIEF SYSTEMS AND VICTIMHOOD – ETHNIC MINORITIES ................................................................................................... 58
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF DOMINANT KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION. ......................................................................................... 59
8. RESTORATIVE JUSTICE ............................................................................................................................... 60
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 60
1. THE SOCIETAL CONTEXT ................................................................................................................................... 60
RESPONSES TO THE NEW SOCIAL DEFENSE ...................................................................................................................... 61
ABOLITIONISM – LOUK HULSMAN ................................................................................................................................. 61
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE .................................................................................................................................................. 61
REINTEGRATIVE SHAMING – JOHN BRAITHWAITE .............................................................................................................. 62
2. THE CONCEPT ................................................................................................................................................ 62
MARSHALL, 1999: ..................................................................................................................................................... 62
NILS CHRISTIE (1977): ............................................................................................................................................... 63
3. PROGRAMS .................................................................................................................................................. 64
BELGIUM: JUVENILES .................................................................................................................................................. 65
BELGIUM: ADULTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 65
4. LIMITATIONS, CHALLENGES, AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS ..................................................................................... 66
9. VERBAL VIOLENCE, HATE SPEECH, AND HATE CRIMES ............................................................................... 67
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
1. VERBAL VIOLENCE .......................................................................................................................................... 67
THE POWER OF WORDS AND LANGUAGE. ........................................................................................................................ 67
2. HATE SPEECH ................................................................................................................................................ 67
CHARACTERISTICS: ...................................................................................................................................................... 68
CONSEQUENCES (GELBER & MCNAMARA, 2016): ........................................................................................................... 68
TO CRIMINALIZE OR NOT? ............................................................................................................................................ 69
APPROACH TO HATE SPEECH: ........................................................................................................................................ 70
3. HATE CRIMES ................................................................................................................................................ 70
10. VICTIMS IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM ............................................................................................ 74
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................................... 74
1. VICTIMS IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................... 74
1. DETECTION AND PROSECUTION.................................................................................................................................. 74
2. SENTENCING .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
3. EXECUTION OF THE SENTENCE ................................................................................................................................... 76
4. EXECUTION OF PENALTIES ........................................................................................................................................ 77
2. THE NEEDS OF VICTIMS .................................................................................................................................... 78
3. VICTIM SUPPORT ........................................................................................................................................... 78
VICTIM SUPPORT ....................................................................................................................................................... 79
POLICE VICTIM TREATMENT – LEGAL FRAMEWORK: .......................................................................................................... 79
CONSULTATION STRUCTURES:....................................................................................................................................... 80
VICTIM RECEPTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 81
VICTIM ASSISTANCE .................................................................................................................................................... 83
4. EVALUATION OF THE VICTIM POLICY .................................................................................................................... 84
REFERRAL MODEL ...................................................................................................................................................... 84
4
