Offender profiling: top-down approach
The top-down approach:
Offender profiling
- Offender profiling is an investigative tool employed by the police when solving crimes, main
aim is to narrow the list of likely suspects. Generate a hypothesis about the probable
characteristics of the offender
American approach
- Originated in the US due to work by FBIs behavioural science unit doing in-depth interviews
with 36 sexually-motivated murderers including Ted Bundy. Concluded data could be
organised into 2 categories. Top-down will collect data about a murder and then decide on
the category data best fits
Organised and disorganised types of offenders
- Organised offenders show evidence of having planned the crime, victim is deliberately
targeted, offender maintain a high degree of control during the crime, leave little evidence
or clues, above average intelligence, in a professional occupation and are socially and
sexually competent
- Disorganised offenders show little evidence of planning, offences may have been
spontaneous. Body is usually still at the scene, little control, lower IQ, unskilled work or
unemployed, history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships, live alone
Constructing an FBI profile
- Four stages: 1. Data assimilation – profiler reviews the evidence, 2. Crime scene classification
– either organised or disorganised, 3. Crime reconstruction – hypotheses in terms of
sequence of events, behaviour of victim, 4. Profile generation – hypotheses related to likely
offender
Evaluation:
Research support: Canter et al. conducted an analysis o 100 US murders each committed by a
different serial killer. Smallest space analysis was used, and, in this case, analysis was used to assess
the co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings. Included things like if there was torture or attempt
to conceal the body. This analysis revealed that there seems to be a subset of features of many serial
killings which matched the FBIs typology. Suggests validity of typology.
Wider application: Meketa reports that t-d has been applied to burglary leading to 85% rise in
solved cases in 3 US states. Detection method retains the organised-disorganised distinction but also
adds interpersonal (offender knows victim and steals something of significance) and opportunistic
(generally inexperienced and young). Suggests t-d has wider application than originally assumed.
Flawed evidence: FBI profiling was developed using interviews with 36 murderers in US – 25 serial
killers and 11 single or double murderers. At the end of process 24 were classified as organised and
12 disorganised. Canter argued that the sample was poor – FBI didn’t select randomly or even a
large sample or different kinds of offenders. No standard s of questions so each interview was
different and therefore not comparable. Suggests t-d doesn’t have a sound scientific basis.
, Offender profiling: bottom-up approach
Bottom-up approach:
Aim to generate picture of the offender through systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene.
Profile is data-driven and emerges as investigator engages in deeper and more details of offence
Investigative psychology
- Attempt to apply statistical procedures, alongside psychological theory. Aim is to establish
patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes. This is to develop a
statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison. Specific details of an
offence can be matched to the database to reveal important details about offender,
personal history, family background etc.
- Interpersonal coherence that the way an offender behaves at the scene, including how they
interact with the victim may reflect their behaviour in more everyday situations. Significance
of time and place is also key for geographical profiling. Forensic awareness describes those
who have been the subject of police interrogation before, denote how mindful of covering
tracks
Geographical profiling
- Uses info about the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about likely home or
operational base of an offender, known as crime mapping and based on spatial consistency
(people commit crimes within a limited geographical space). Can be used with psychological
theory to create a hypotheses and modus operandi
- Canters circle theory – pattern of offending forms a circle around offender’s home base.
Marauder – who operates near home base, commuter – likely to have travelled a distance
away from their residence.
- This can offer the investigative team important insight into the nature of offence and revels
other factors e.g., mode of transport, employment status, approx. age
Evaluation:
Evidence for investigative psychology: Canter and Heritage conducted an analysis of 66 sexual
assault cases. Data examine using smallest space analysis and several behaviours identified as
common in different samples of behaviour e.g., use of impersonal language. Each individual
displayed a characteristic pattern of such behaviours, and it can help establish whether two or more
offences were committed by the same person. Supports basic principles of IP.
Evidence for geographical profiling: Lundrigan and Canter collated info from 120 murder cases
involving serial killers in US. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in behaviour of
killers. Location of each body disposal site created a centre of gravity presumably because offenders
start from home base then go in diff. direction each time of disposal but ends up creating a circular
effect around home base. Offenders base was invariably located in centre of pattern. Effect more
noticeable for offenders who were marauders. Supports view that geographical info can be used.
Geographical info. insufficient: may not be sufficient alone, may be reliant on the quality of data
that police provide. Unfortunately, recording of crime not always accurate, estimated 75% crimes
not reported. Calls into questions utility of an approach that relies on accuracy of geographical data.
Even if info is correct critics claim that other factors are just as important e.g., timing of offence and
age and experience of offender. Suggests GP alone may not always lead to successful capture.
The top-down approach:
Offender profiling
- Offender profiling is an investigative tool employed by the police when solving crimes, main
aim is to narrow the list of likely suspects. Generate a hypothesis about the probable
characteristics of the offender
American approach
- Originated in the US due to work by FBIs behavioural science unit doing in-depth interviews
with 36 sexually-motivated murderers including Ted Bundy. Concluded data could be
organised into 2 categories. Top-down will collect data about a murder and then decide on
the category data best fits
Organised and disorganised types of offenders
- Organised offenders show evidence of having planned the crime, victim is deliberately
targeted, offender maintain a high degree of control during the crime, leave little evidence
or clues, above average intelligence, in a professional occupation and are socially and
sexually competent
- Disorganised offenders show little evidence of planning, offences may have been
spontaneous. Body is usually still at the scene, little control, lower IQ, unskilled work or
unemployed, history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships, live alone
Constructing an FBI profile
- Four stages: 1. Data assimilation – profiler reviews the evidence, 2. Crime scene classification
– either organised or disorganised, 3. Crime reconstruction – hypotheses in terms of
sequence of events, behaviour of victim, 4. Profile generation – hypotheses related to likely
offender
Evaluation:
Research support: Canter et al. conducted an analysis o 100 US murders each committed by a
different serial killer. Smallest space analysis was used, and, in this case, analysis was used to assess
the co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings. Included things like if there was torture or attempt
to conceal the body. This analysis revealed that there seems to be a subset of features of many serial
killings which matched the FBIs typology. Suggests validity of typology.
Wider application: Meketa reports that t-d has been applied to burglary leading to 85% rise in
solved cases in 3 US states. Detection method retains the organised-disorganised distinction but also
adds interpersonal (offender knows victim and steals something of significance) and opportunistic
(generally inexperienced and young). Suggests t-d has wider application than originally assumed.
Flawed evidence: FBI profiling was developed using interviews with 36 murderers in US – 25 serial
killers and 11 single or double murderers. At the end of process 24 were classified as organised and
12 disorganised. Canter argued that the sample was poor – FBI didn’t select randomly or even a
large sample or different kinds of offenders. No standard s of questions so each interview was
different and therefore not comparable. Suggests t-d doesn’t have a sound scientific basis.
, Offender profiling: bottom-up approach
Bottom-up approach:
Aim to generate picture of the offender through systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene.
Profile is data-driven and emerges as investigator engages in deeper and more details of offence
Investigative psychology
- Attempt to apply statistical procedures, alongside psychological theory. Aim is to establish
patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes. This is to develop a
statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison. Specific details of an
offence can be matched to the database to reveal important details about offender,
personal history, family background etc.
- Interpersonal coherence that the way an offender behaves at the scene, including how they
interact with the victim may reflect their behaviour in more everyday situations. Significance
of time and place is also key for geographical profiling. Forensic awareness describes those
who have been the subject of police interrogation before, denote how mindful of covering
tracks
Geographical profiling
- Uses info about the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about likely home or
operational base of an offender, known as crime mapping and based on spatial consistency
(people commit crimes within a limited geographical space). Can be used with psychological
theory to create a hypotheses and modus operandi
- Canters circle theory – pattern of offending forms a circle around offender’s home base.
Marauder – who operates near home base, commuter – likely to have travelled a distance
away from their residence.
- This can offer the investigative team important insight into the nature of offence and revels
other factors e.g., mode of transport, employment status, approx. age
Evaluation:
Evidence for investigative psychology: Canter and Heritage conducted an analysis of 66 sexual
assault cases. Data examine using smallest space analysis and several behaviours identified as
common in different samples of behaviour e.g., use of impersonal language. Each individual
displayed a characteristic pattern of such behaviours, and it can help establish whether two or more
offences were committed by the same person. Supports basic principles of IP.
Evidence for geographical profiling: Lundrigan and Canter collated info from 120 murder cases
involving serial killers in US. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in behaviour of
killers. Location of each body disposal site created a centre of gravity presumably because offenders
start from home base then go in diff. direction each time of disposal but ends up creating a circular
effect around home base. Offenders base was invariably located in centre of pattern. Effect more
noticeable for offenders who were marauders. Supports view that geographical info can be used.
Geographical info. insufficient: may not be sufficient alone, may be reliant on the quality of data
that police provide. Unfortunately, recording of crime not always accurate, estimated 75% crimes
not reported. Calls into questions utility of an approach that relies on accuracy of geographical data.
Even if info is correct critics claim that other factors are just as important e.g., timing of offence and
age and experience of offender. Suggests GP alone may not always lead to successful capture.
