Biology 210- genetics final exam Questions with Correct and Verified Answers. Graded A+

Biology 210- genetics final exam Questions with Correct and Verified Answers. Graded A+ define gene - Correct Answer a segment of DNA that codes for a functional product that influences a phenotype (mostly proteins, sometimes RNA)" "define mutation - Correct Answer changes in DNA that lead to a new or altered genes/ train, and ends up contributing to evolution" "describe conjagation (type of horizontal gene transfer) - Correct Answer conjugation: relies on physical contact between cells, a donor cell produces a pilus (protein tubue) to transfer DNA, the recipient may gain the ability to preform conjugation, transfer can happen between different species" "describe transformation (type of horizontal gene transfer) - Correct Answer a dead donor cell releases DNA, a "competent" recipient cell picks up the DNA and incorporates it into its genome" "describe transduction (type of horizontal gene transfer) - Correct Answer a virus within a donor cell "picks up"" host DNA, virus exits donor cell, virus attaches to recipient, and releases host DNA into the recipients genome" "explain the different levels of genetic study (molecular, cellular, organismal, population) - Correct Answer molecular: DNA, RNA, polypeptides/ proteins cellular: proteins affect the structure, function, and other characteristic of a cell organismal: traits of an organism are determined by the characteristics of its cells population: organisms of the same species have various traits that affect fitness of that species" "define alleles - Correct Answer gene variation, different version of the same gene, lead to genetic diversity in a population" "define asexual reproduction - Correct Answer offspring are clones of parents and diversity arises from mutation and horizontal gene transfers" "define sexual reproduction - Correct Answer offspring genetically unique from parent, random fertilization leads to different parental combination of genes/ alleles, offpsring will have 2 sets of genetic info (one maternal one paternal)" "Define chromosome - Correct Answer large piece of DNA that contains most or all of the genetic material of a cell" "define chromatin - Correct Answer mixture of protein and chromosomes" "define prokaryotic as a cell type - Correct Answer single celled less complex genomes reproduce asexually, have a single chromosome, like bacteria and archea, lack nuclei" "define eukaryote as a cell type - Correct Answer some single celled and some muulticellular, chromosomes carried in nucleus, have homologous chromosomes, most reproduce sexually but some asexually" "describe the process of binary fission - Correct Answer 1. parent cell replicates its single chromosome 2. a ring forms in the center of the cell that separates the chromosome copies 3. the cell divides, and each new cell receives a copy of the chromosome 4. the parent cell has divided and is now split into 2 daughter cells" "describe the phases of interphase - Correct Answer G1: preparation for chromosomes replication and division S: chromosome replication that produces sister chromatids G2: accumulation of materials necessary for division" "define the 3 types of microtubules that are apart of the mitotic spindle - Correct Answer astral microtubules: anchor centromes in place in the cell polar microtuules: push cell poles apart kinetochore microtubules: attach to kinetochore proteins surrounding centromeres" "describe prophase - Correct Answer chromosomes condense to make them easier to separate, centrosomes move to opposite sides of the cell" "describe prometaphase - Correct Answer centrrsomes begin forming microtubules, kinetochore microtubules attach to kinetochore proteins of sister chromatids" "describe metaphase - Correct Answer sister chromatids (still connected) align in the center of the cell at the metaphase plate, each chromatid of a pair is attached to a kinetochore microtubule" "describe anaphase - Correct Answer sister chromatids have broken apart, each chromatid pulled to opposite sides of the cell via kinetochore mictorubules, polar microtubules push against each other to elongate the cell" "describe telophase - Correct Answer chromatids separate and are at each pole, chromatids decondenses, cleavage furrow forms" "describe cytokinesis - Correct Answer sapates the cytoplasm, including all other membrane bound organelles" "the process of mitosis separates what (name) - Correct Answer sister chromatids" "name 3 differences of meiosis and mitosis - Correct Answer 1. In meiosis, homologous chromosomes undergo recombination (crossover) 2. meiosis 1: homologous chromosomes disconnect to make 2 sister chromatids, meiosis2: these sister chromatids divide to make a total of 4 haploid daughter cells 3. mitosis produced diploid cells, mitosis produces haploid cells" "define homologous recombination - Correct Answer alleles from the maternal and paternal chromosome switch places, leading to genetic diversity" "define the law of segregation - Correct Answer to give rise to gametes, a pair of alleles must segregate such that an allele from each parent is present in each gamete" "define the law of independent assortment - Correct Answer the alleles of two or more different genes get sorted into gemetes independently for one another" "what is the produce rule in reference to punnett squares - Correct Answer it predicts the probability of offspring will be produced in a specific order" "define dosage compensation - Correct Answer the XY sex chromosomes of males have the same about of X gene expression as females but they just have 2 copies of it" "what is X-inactivation - Correct Answer one X in the XX combination of female sex chromosomes will condense and turn into a Barr body resulting in silencing to make the one X in the XY combination of male sex chromosomes" "define hemizygous - Correct Answer one copy of a chromosome" "define sex influences and sex limited - Correct Answer sex influences: an allele is dominant in one sex but recessive in the opposite sex sex limited: trait is found only in one trait" "describe the way that genetics can "break" mendelian inheritance - Correct Answer 1. extranuclear DNA: genes not found in the nucleus so they do not segregate during meiosis 2. epigenetics: genes can alter based on behavior or environment of the offspring 3. maternal affect: gene expression in mothers cells affect the offspring phenotype 4. gene linkage: genes that don't follow independent assortment" "define maternal inheritance - Correct Answer unequal cell division is oogenesis leads to one egg cell having most of the cytoplasm and organelles" "define epigenetics - Correct Answer a change in genes does not follow the offspring, x inactivation is an example of epigenetics inheritance" "define genomic imprinting - Correct Answer a type of epigenetic that can be passed down to an offspring" "define maternal effect - Correct Answer gene expression of the cells in the mother affect the gene expression in the offspring" "define linkage - Correct Answer 2 genes being physically linked to each other on the same chromosomes" "what is a locus - Correct Answer specific location of a gene on a chromosome" "define recombinant offspring - Correct Answer offspring with different phenotypes than found in the parents" "how to Thomas Morgan Hunt explain more nonrecombinant than recombinant offspring in his fruit flies - Correct Answer more nonrecombinant: because all 3 genes studies were linked (found on the same chromosome) meaning they would not independently assort few recombinant: because eve thought all 3 were linked crossing over of loci still occurred" "how do recombination frequencies relate to loci distance - Correct Answer high recombination frequencies indicate genes are close together, low recombination frequencies indicate genes are far apart" "define karyotype - Correct Answer an arrangment of chromosomes by size" "define deletion (chromosome structure change) - Correct Answer an area of a chromosome is lost (deleted), can be harmful if the gene that gets deleted is necessary for survival" "define duplication (chromosome structure change) - Correct Answer an area of a chromosome duplicates so that 2 copies are present, usually less harmful than deletion" "define inversion (chromosome structure change), consequences? - Correct Answer a region inverts within the chromosome, cons: loss/ addition or genes and/or centromeres" "define translocation (chromosome structure change), consequences? - Correct Answer a portion of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome, cons: mixture of chromosomes leads to hybrid chromosomes that do not segregate properly" "explain what an imbalance of gene expression would look like - Correct Answer diploid organisms: 100% gene expression, trisomic organisms: 150% gene expression, monosomis organisms: 50% gene expression" "define nondisjunction - Correct Answer an error in which hologus or sister chromatids do not separate, you would see a grater effect in meiosis than mitosis" "describe nondisjunction in meiosis I - Correct Answer homolog pair fails to separate, cells after meiosis have either an extra or missing chromatid" "describe nondisjunction in meiosis II - Correct Answer sister chromatid pairs fails to separate (can happen in one or both cells), some turn out haploid, other turn our aneuploidy" "what are the 2 main reasons horizontal gene transfer is relevant right not - Correct Answer 1. it allows prokaryotes to pick up advantageous genes, the species does not have to wait for the train to evolve, can lead to rapid adaption/ natural selection 2. primary reason antibiotics resistance spreads rapidly, reason why bacterial infections are becoming harder to treat" "what is a nucleic acid - Correct Answer chains of nucleotides that form a repeating structure" "what is a nucleotide composed of - Correct Answer sugar with a phosphate and base attached" "what are the two type of nucleotide bases - Correct Answer purine (double ring) pyrimidines (single ring)" "describe the carbon binding sites of the sugar (nucleotide) - Correct Answer 1' is where the base attached 3' has an -OH and is where new nucleotides attach 5' has phosphate group that attached to the 3' OH" "describe the bond between nucleic acids - Correct Answer " "what did each of the following people propose about the properties of DNA -james watson and Francis Crick -franklin and winkins -erwin chargaff - Correct Answer James Watson and Francis Crick: proposed that DNA occurs in a helix based on molecular modeling Franklin and Winkins: proposed that the DNA structure viewed under a X ray diffraction was too wide to be a single strand Erwin Chargaff: discovered that the amount of T in DNA always matched the amount of A, and C always matched G" "what are the key features of DNA - Correct Answer A -- T (2 hydrogen bonds) C -- G (3 hydrogen bonds) strands are complementary strands are antiparallel twisting produces major and minor grooves" "what is the bottleneck effect - Correct Answer reduced population size due t natural events, habitat loss, overharvesting" "what is the founder effect - Correct Answer reduces in population size due to separation of a small part of a population from the main population, small population has less diversity" "how does gene flow occur - Correct Answer when members of one population mix with another population and interbreed" "define replication fork - Correct Answer the movement of helicase along each DNA strand creates two replication forks" "what does topisomerase do in DNA replication - Correct Answer relieves coiling to prevent DNA from breaking" "what is the role of topoisomerase/DNA gyrase in DNA replication - Correct Answer prevents DNA from breaking after helicase by relieving the coiling/ unwinding it" "what is the role of primase in DNA replication - Correct Answer DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides with a 3' end so primase creates a short tail with a 3' end for DNA polymerase to build off of" "what is the main problem with okazaki fragments and how it is fixed - Correct Answer problem: okazaki fragments must be linked to form a continuous DNA strand fix: DNA ligase (enzyme), it attaches tot eh 3' end of each okazaki fragments to the 5' end of the previous okazaki fragment" "describe telomeres on eukaryotes - Correct Answer regions of repeating DNA sequences that attach to proteins, telomeres protect the free ends of the DNA from degradation by nucleases, contains RNA and is uesd to fill the gap at the end of a double helix after replication" "what are the 2 proposed mechanisms for homologous recombination - Correct Answer holliday model and double strand break model" "describe the various regions that make up a gene (DNA) - Correct Answer regulatory sequence: related to how the gene is turned on or off promoter: where RNA polymerase brings to the gene (where transcriptions begins) terminator: point at which transcription ends open reading frame: between the promoter and terminator" "define population - Correct Answer a group of interbreeding individuals of the same species" "define allele and genotype frequency - Correct Answer Allele frequency: the frequency at which an allele of a gene occurs within a defines population genotype frequency: the frequency at which a genotype occurs within a defined population" "define Hardy-Weinberd Equilibrium - Correct Answer predicts that allele and genotype frequencies are stable over time, is a null hypothesis (that no evolutionary change will occur), shows what a population would look in if there was no evolution" "what needs to be true for equilibrium of a population to occur according to Hardy-Weinberg - Correct Answer 1. no new mutations 2. no genetic drift 3. no migration 4. no natural selective 5. mating/ breeding is random" "define genetic drift - Correct Answer the change in a population's gene pool from generation to generation" "list things that can cause new genetic varitions - Correct Answer 1. mutations 2. natural selection 3. genetic drift 4. migration 5. nonrandom mating" "define fitness - Correct Answer a measure of reproductive success" "define positive and negative assortative mating - Correct Answer positive: choosing a mate with a similar phenotype as your own negative: choosing a mate with a different phenotype than your own" "define inbreeding, what are the disadvantages - Correct Answer define: individuals mate with an individual of the same genetic lineage disadvantage: lead to an accumulation of recessive alleles in a genetic lineage, causing a greater number of homozygous recessive genetypes" "define gene cloning - Correct Answer the process of making copies of a gene using a cell to replicate those copies, the fragment of DNA is placed into a plasmid: a small DNA molecule that replicates in a cell" "what is the role of restriction enzymes - Correct Answer cut DNA at specific sites called restriction sites" "what are compatible ends - Correct Answer overhangs of DNA that restrictive enzymes leave behind" "what is PCR - Correct Answer polymerase chain reaction, a more efficint way to prepare fragments, uses DNA replication to make billions of copies of a "gene of interest" (GOI) that can be clones into a vector" "describe the 5 different PCR reagents - Correct Answer 1. template DNA: a fragment of DNA containing the GOI 2. heat stable DNA polymerase: enzyme that makes DNA strands and can tolerate the high denaturation temperature 3. DNA primers: provided 3'-OH for DNA polymerase to extend and defines the target for PRC 4. Deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTPs): nucleotides that DNA polymerase links together 5. PCR buffer: provided ions necessary for DNA polymerase to work" "what are the 2 type of DNA sequencing and how do they differ - Correct Answer sanger sequencing: good for smaller DNA fragments next generation sequencing: good for whole genomes and other large sequencing projects" "define gene editing - Correct Answer the addition or removal of genetic sequences of a genome (ex: CRISPR/Cas)" "how does CRISPER/Cas gene editing work - Correct Answer uses a guide RNA to direct enzymes (Cas proteins) against target DNA or RNA, these enzymes cut the DNA or RNA ,and the sequences are degraded allows for the ability to replace alleles with more desirable alleles if coupled with homologous recombination" "define annealing - Correct Answer low temperatures allow DNA primers to bind to ssDNA" "define primer extension - Correct Answer Taq polymerase catalyzed the synthesis of complementary DNA stands in the 5' to 3' directions" "define denaturation - Correct Answer when high temps denature dsDNA" "give a breif description of PCR process - Correct Answer 1. denaturation breaks H bonds to separate the double helix 2. anneling allows primer to bind 3. DNA polymerase extends those primers to the extension phase, reoeat each cycle doubles the amount of GOI" "define reproductive cloning - Correct Answer the production of two or more genetically identical organisms" "describe the process of reproductive cloning in animals - Correct Answer a mammaary cell and a unfertilized egg with its nucleus removed fuse, once fused a diploid nucleus is found in the egg cell, this is put into a surrogate mother" "what are stem cells - Correct Answer unspecialized cells that replicate to produce cells that differentiate into a specialized type of cell" "describe the 4 different types of stem cells - Correct Answer totipotent stem cells: (a fertilized egg) can become all type of cells in the body pluripotent stem cells: (embryonic stem cells) can become almost any type of cell in the body, but cannot revert backwards multipotent stem cells: (adult stem cells) can become many types of cells in the body unipotent stemm cells: (adult stem cell) can become one type of cell in body" "what is induced pluripotency - Correct Answer reverting adult stem cells back to an embryonic stem cell type of pluripotency" "define DNA sequencing - Correct Answer a technique that allows the base pair sequence of DNA to be determined"