Advanced Pathophysiology Study Guide Exam Questions
with Answer Graded A+ 2025/2026
What can Reactive Oxygen Species cause? - Heart disease, Alzheimers,
Parkinsons, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), CV disease, HTN, HLD,
DM, ischemic heart disease, HF, OSA. Lipid perioxidation, damage
proteins, fragment DNA, less *protein synthesis*, chromatin destruction,
damage mitochondria
What is the body's defense against ROS? - Antioxidants (Vitamin E,
Vitamin C, cysteine, glutathione, albumin, ceruloplasmin, transferrin)
How are free radicals produced? - 1. Normal cellular respiration
2. Absorption of extreme energy sources (radiation, UV light)
3. Metabolism of exogenous chemicals, drugs, and pesticides
4. Transition of metals
5. Nitric oxide acting like a chemical mediator and a free radical
action potential - Process of conducting an impulse. Activates the neuron --
> the neuron depolarizes --> then repolarizes
Threshold potential - Point at which depolarization must reach in order to
initiate an action potential
Hypokalemia and action potentials - HYPERpolarized (more negative, ex. -
100). Less excitable. Decreased neuromuscular excitability: weakness,
smooth muscle atony, paresthesia, cardiac dysrhythmias
Hyperkalemia and action potentials - HYPOpolarized (more positive, ex:
closer to 0). More excitable. Peaked T waves.
When resting membrane potential=threshold potential, it is BAD = cardiac
standstill, paresthesia, paralysis
Hypocalcemia and action potentials - Increased permeability to Na+. More
excitable. Tetany, hyperreflexia, circumoral paresthesia, seizures,
dysrhythmias.
Hypercalcemia and action potentials - Decreased permeability to Na+. Less
excitable. Weakness, hyporeflexia, fatigue, lethargy, confusion,
encephalopathy, depressed T waves
, Atrophy - Occurs as a result of decrease in work load, pressure, use, blood
supply, nutrition, hormonal stimulation, or nervous stimulation. Once the
cell has decreased in size, it has now compensated for decreased blood
supply, nerve supply, nutrient supply, hormonal supply, and has achieved
new homeostasis. Cells are alive but have diminished function and may
lead to cellular death.
Atrophy examples - Physiologic atrophy- shrinking of the thymus gland
during childhood.
Disuse atrophy- someone that ends up being paralyzed
Hypertrophy - Increase in SIZE of cells, which will lead to increase in size
of organ. Caused by hormonal stimulation or increased functional demand.
Hypertrophy examples - physiologic hypertrophy- skeletal hypertrophy
when a person does heavy work or weight lifting / when a kidney is
surgically removed, the other kidney increases in size
pathologic hypertrophy- cardiomegaly results from an increased workload
in hypertensive patients / *left ventricular hypertrophy*
Hyperplasia - Increase in NUMBER of cells. Results from increased rate of
mitosis. Can ONLY happen in cells that are capable of mitosis (cell
division).
Hyperplasia examples - 1. Thickening of skin because of hyperplasia of
epidermal cells.
2. Hormonal hyperplasia- occurs in estrogen dependent organs like uterus
and breast.
3. Compensatory hyperplasia- liver regenerates, callus on skin
4. Pathologic hyperplasia- estrogen is unopposed by progesterone and the
endometrial lining undergoes hyperplasia and increased risk for
endometrial cancer
Dysplasia - abnormal changes in the size, shape, and organization of
mature cells due to persistent, severe cell injury or irritation
Dysplasia examples - Pre cancer pap smears often show dysplastic cells of
the cervix that must undergo treatment.
with Answer Graded A+ 2025/2026
What can Reactive Oxygen Species cause? - Heart disease, Alzheimers,
Parkinsons, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), CV disease, HTN, HLD,
DM, ischemic heart disease, HF, OSA. Lipid perioxidation, damage
proteins, fragment DNA, less *protein synthesis*, chromatin destruction,
damage mitochondria
What is the body's defense against ROS? - Antioxidants (Vitamin E,
Vitamin C, cysteine, glutathione, albumin, ceruloplasmin, transferrin)
How are free radicals produced? - 1. Normal cellular respiration
2. Absorption of extreme energy sources (radiation, UV light)
3. Metabolism of exogenous chemicals, drugs, and pesticides
4. Transition of metals
5. Nitric oxide acting like a chemical mediator and a free radical
action potential - Process of conducting an impulse. Activates the neuron --
> the neuron depolarizes --> then repolarizes
Threshold potential - Point at which depolarization must reach in order to
initiate an action potential
Hypokalemia and action potentials - HYPERpolarized (more negative, ex. -
100). Less excitable. Decreased neuromuscular excitability: weakness,
smooth muscle atony, paresthesia, cardiac dysrhythmias
Hyperkalemia and action potentials - HYPOpolarized (more positive, ex:
closer to 0). More excitable. Peaked T waves.
When resting membrane potential=threshold potential, it is BAD = cardiac
standstill, paresthesia, paralysis
Hypocalcemia and action potentials - Increased permeability to Na+. More
excitable. Tetany, hyperreflexia, circumoral paresthesia, seizures,
dysrhythmias.
Hypercalcemia and action potentials - Decreased permeability to Na+. Less
excitable. Weakness, hyporeflexia, fatigue, lethargy, confusion,
encephalopathy, depressed T waves
, Atrophy - Occurs as a result of decrease in work load, pressure, use, blood
supply, nutrition, hormonal stimulation, or nervous stimulation. Once the
cell has decreased in size, it has now compensated for decreased blood
supply, nerve supply, nutrient supply, hormonal supply, and has achieved
new homeostasis. Cells are alive but have diminished function and may
lead to cellular death.
Atrophy examples - Physiologic atrophy- shrinking of the thymus gland
during childhood.
Disuse atrophy- someone that ends up being paralyzed
Hypertrophy - Increase in SIZE of cells, which will lead to increase in size
of organ. Caused by hormonal stimulation or increased functional demand.
Hypertrophy examples - physiologic hypertrophy- skeletal hypertrophy
when a person does heavy work or weight lifting / when a kidney is
surgically removed, the other kidney increases in size
pathologic hypertrophy- cardiomegaly results from an increased workload
in hypertensive patients / *left ventricular hypertrophy*
Hyperplasia - Increase in NUMBER of cells. Results from increased rate of
mitosis. Can ONLY happen in cells that are capable of mitosis (cell
division).
Hyperplasia examples - 1. Thickening of skin because of hyperplasia of
epidermal cells.
2. Hormonal hyperplasia- occurs in estrogen dependent organs like uterus
and breast.
3. Compensatory hyperplasia- liver regenerates, callus on skin
4. Pathologic hyperplasia- estrogen is unopposed by progesterone and the
endometrial lining undergoes hyperplasia and increased risk for
endometrial cancer
Dysplasia - abnormal changes in the size, shape, and organization of
mature cells due to persistent, severe cell injury or irritation
Dysplasia examples - Pre cancer pap smears often show dysplastic cells of
the cervix that must undergo treatment.
