ENG2601 MAY/JUNE 2015 MEMORANDUM
SECTION A
QUESTION 1: COHESION
BASIC FACTS ABOUT COHESION
Cohesion refers to the parts of the language system which tie sentences and clauses
together. Basically, cohesion refers to the relationship and connections which exist
between ideas in a paragraph, essay or novel. Cohesion also describes the patterns
of language created within a text, mainly within and across sentence boundaries. More
importantly, cohesion mark up the organisation of larger units of the text such as
paragraphs. More importantly, cohesion is the glue that brings sentences together.
Types of cohesion
There are two major classes or categories of text cohesion in English. These are:
Grammatical cohesion and
Lexical cohesion
GRAMMATICAL COHESION
It consists of four subcategories namely:
Reference cohesion
Substitution cohesion
Ellipsis cohesion
Conjunctive cohesion
Grammatical cohesion refers to the use of grammatical elements to tie a text together.
Reference cohesion
The principle of reference within text tells the reader that they can only make complete
sense of a word or structure they are looking at it if they look elsewhere in the text to
get a fuller picture.
Personal pronoun reference
Personal pronouns are words that can substitute nouns. These are as follows:
,I; you (singular); she; it; one; we; you (plural); they
Other forms of pronouns: me; him; her; us; them
When one of these pronouns occurs in a text, readers expect to have to link it with
something – either an item that has already been mentioned or something that is
coming up.
ANAPHORIC REFERENCE- a pronoun referring back something
CATAPHORIC REFERENCE – the pronoun referring to something coming later
EXAMPLES
Tom said that he was going home (anaphoric reference)
I couldn’t believe it – the house was a complete wreck (cataphoric
reference.)
EXOPHORIC reference: This is a reference item which moves the reader outside a
text so that he\she can make full sense of the text by referring to its context.
For example, the use of ‘you’ on a text as a direct address to the reader tells the reader
to use himself as the reference point.
The use of ‘l’ in a text tells the reader that the writer or the narrator is being self-
referential.
N.B. The pronouns ‘you’ and ‘l’ function as signposts leading out of the text and they
make the reader to focus on the human agents who are producing and receiving the
text.
ENDOPHORIC REFERENCE – This is a reference item which allows the reader to
stay within a text, so the reader do not need any supporting details from outside
DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE (DEICTICS)
It is carried by the following terms: the; this; that; these; those; here; and there.
These terms demonstrate where something is - they are verbal pointers.
Demonstrative pronouns can work backwards (anaphoric) or forwards (cataphoric)
For example:
, l went to Italy last year, and l want to go there again soon (anaphoric)
But the problem is this: how can l afford it? (cataphoric)
This; these and here- all mean near the writer/ speaker.
COMPARATIVE REFERENCE tells the reader to look elsewhere for information with
a particular aim in mind – to compare the items that are being linked.
Look for the use of ‘er’ to compare two items e.g. taller, healthier.
Also look for the use of ‘est’ which is used to compare more than one item.
SUBSTIUTION- the writer or speaker replaces one item for another in the text. A
phrase can be replaced by a single word. Substitution makes texts to be more
economic by avoiding tedious repetition.
For example:
John: Has the agent for your house put it in the local paper?
Isaac: l think he must have done, because Terry saw it advertised around his chips
from the chip shop.
John: That must have been a bit of a shock if you hadn’t told him.
Isaac: I think so.
In the above dialogue ‘do’ is used to replace verbs and ‘so’ is also used as a substitute
for whole clauses.
Nouns can also be used to establish substitution, e.g.
He looked at the potatoes, and picked out the large ones.
N.B. The noun,” potatoes” has been substituted by the phrase, ‘the large ones”
ELLIPSIS involves omitting grammatical elements to avoid redundancy or repetition
e.g. There are two cats. We used to have three …
Mother: Thabo have you been playing in the mud again?
Thabo: Yes, l have …
SECTION A
QUESTION 1: COHESION
BASIC FACTS ABOUT COHESION
Cohesion refers to the parts of the language system which tie sentences and clauses
together. Basically, cohesion refers to the relationship and connections which exist
between ideas in a paragraph, essay or novel. Cohesion also describes the patterns
of language created within a text, mainly within and across sentence boundaries. More
importantly, cohesion mark up the organisation of larger units of the text such as
paragraphs. More importantly, cohesion is the glue that brings sentences together.
Types of cohesion
There are two major classes or categories of text cohesion in English. These are:
Grammatical cohesion and
Lexical cohesion
GRAMMATICAL COHESION
It consists of four subcategories namely:
Reference cohesion
Substitution cohesion
Ellipsis cohesion
Conjunctive cohesion
Grammatical cohesion refers to the use of grammatical elements to tie a text together.
Reference cohesion
The principle of reference within text tells the reader that they can only make complete
sense of a word or structure they are looking at it if they look elsewhere in the text to
get a fuller picture.
Personal pronoun reference
Personal pronouns are words that can substitute nouns. These are as follows:
,I; you (singular); she; it; one; we; you (plural); they
Other forms of pronouns: me; him; her; us; them
When one of these pronouns occurs in a text, readers expect to have to link it with
something – either an item that has already been mentioned or something that is
coming up.
ANAPHORIC REFERENCE- a pronoun referring back something
CATAPHORIC REFERENCE – the pronoun referring to something coming later
EXAMPLES
Tom said that he was going home (anaphoric reference)
I couldn’t believe it – the house was a complete wreck (cataphoric
reference.)
EXOPHORIC reference: This is a reference item which moves the reader outside a
text so that he\she can make full sense of the text by referring to its context.
For example, the use of ‘you’ on a text as a direct address to the reader tells the reader
to use himself as the reference point.
The use of ‘l’ in a text tells the reader that the writer or the narrator is being self-
referential.
N.B. The pronouns ‘you’ and ‘l’ function as signposts leading out of the text and they
make the reader to focus on the human agents who are producing and receiving the
text.
ENDOPHORIC REFERENCE – This is a reference item which allows the reader to
stay within a text, so the reader do not need any supporting details from outside
DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE (DEICTICS)
It is carried by the following terms: the; this; that; these; those; here; and there.
These terms demonstrate where something is - they are verbal pointers.
Demonstrative pronouns can work backwards (anaphoric) or forwards (cataphoric)
For example:
, l went to Italy last year, and l want to go there again soon (anaphoric)
But the problem is this: how can l afford it? (cataphoric)
This; these and here- all mean near the writer/ speaker.
COMPARATIVE REFERENCE tells the reader to look elsewhere for information with
a particular aim in mind – to compare the items that are being linked.
Look for the use of ‘er’ to compare two items e.g. taller, healthier.
Also look for the use of ‘est’ which is used to compare more than one item.
SUBSTIUTION- the writer or speaker replaces one item for another in the text. A
phrase can be replaced by a single word. Substitution makes texts to be more
economic by avoiding tedious repetition.
For example:
John: Has the agent for your house put it in the local paper?
Isaac: l think he must have done, because Terry saw it advertised around his chips
from the chip shop.
John: That must have been a bit of a shock if you hadn’t told him.
Isaac: I think so.
In the above dialogue ‘do’ is used to replace verbs and ‘so’ is also used as a substitute
for whole clauses.
Nouns can also be used to establish substitution, e.g.
He looked at the potatoes, and picked out the large ones.
N.B. The noun,” potatoes” has been substituted by the phrase, ‘the large ones”
ELLIPSIS involves omitting grammatical elements to avoid redundancy or repetition
e.g. There are two cats. We used to have three …
Mother: Thabo have you been playing in the mud again?
Thabo: Yes, l have …
