BIO 1008 Final Test With
Verified Solution
Nervous systems - ANSWER • Central nervous system - Brain - Spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system - Peripheral nerves - Sensory system • Autonomic nervous
system - Sympathetic - Parasympathetic
• Enteric nervous system
Skin structure - ANSWER - Epidermis: outside mostly squamous cells
- Dermis: Inner layerthick and contains most living skin components
Heart supplies oxygen and blood to muscles and other organs - ANSWER Red blood
cells carry oxygen, so must be moved around body and to lungs. • Heart increases beat
and amount of blood per beat (stroke volume) to ensure enough oxygen is reaching
target organs
Summary of heat regulation and body temperature in endotherms - ANSWER • Body
temperature regulated within narrow range
• Metabolic rate varies below or above critical range
• Within critical range, circulation or insulation changes to control Tbody
Metabolism and body temperature - ANSWER • Body temperature is highly regulated
over wide range of external temperatures
• Between the lower critical (LCT) and upper critical (UCT) (external) temperatures, the
regulation is passive
• Above UCT, sweating or other processes are initiated to lose heat
• Below LCT, metabolic rate increased to generate more heat
Temperature Regulation - ANSWER • Understand heat balance
• Temperature set point
• Role of ANS and endocrines in varying heat gain or loss depending upon requirements
Heat Balance - ANSWER • Heat In ± Heat Stored = Heat Out
• Heat In ± Heat Stored ± Heat Out = 0
,• Positive - Temperature Increases
• Negative - Temperature Decreases
Temperature set point - ANSWER • Control in hypothalamus, although peripheral
sensors have some role
• Controller senses difference between Tset and Tbody
• Results in various processes that either heat or cool body, most processes regulated
via the autonomic nervous system
Circulatory changes - ANSWER • Vasodilation (Parasympathetic stimulation?) in skin
occurs to remove heat (increase convection)
• Vasoconstriction (Sympathetic stimulation) in skin occurs to conserve heat (decrease
convection)
• Piloerection (increased insulation) caused by sympathetic action ("goose bumps") •
Change in blood flow causes change in skin temperature
Heat balance equation - ANSWER Hrad±Hcond±Hconv±Hevap±Hstor+Hmet = 0
Hrad is radiant heat (solar, diffuse and reflected)
• Hcond is conducted heat (through surface contact)
• Hconv is convective heat (through fluid movement)
• Hevap is heat of evaporation or condensation (water loss or gain)
• Hstor is the heat stored in the body
• Hmet is metabolic heat production (so is always positive in living organism)
Insulation against heat loss - ANSWER External - Clothes - Hair
• Internal - Lipid and its distribution - Circulation
Hypothermia - ANSWER • Reduction of body temperature below set point
• Exposure to cold environments (air or water)
• Unable to produce enough energy to maintain body temperature
• Body temperature begins decreasing, but not necessarily terminal
• Controlled hypothermia used in surgery
Hyperthermia - ANSWER • Exercise-Metabolic heat production and dehydration
• Exposure-External environment heat gain and dehydration
,• Fever-Regulated variation in body temperature set point
Heat storage-fever - ANSWER Regulated change in Tset
Body temperature increases to new set point 38-41 ̊C or febrile range
Reduce growth rate of pathogens or stimulate defence against pathogens
Endogenous pyrogens such as cytokines responsible for new set point
Probably act via prostaglandins, although norepinephrine may also have role
Anatomy and functional anatomy - ANSWER Understandingthe functional attributes of
the skeletal system
Bone
Joints
Muscle
Ligaments&Tendons
Functions of skeletal system - ANSWER • Mechanical
- Weight bearing
- Protection of internal organs
- Rigid links between joints
- Sites for muscular attachment
• Physiological
- Adapts to strength requirements
- Repairs self after breakage
- Storage of calcium and phosphorus
- Bone marrow produces blood cells and part of immune system
Bone types - ANSWER • Long• Short• Flat• Sesamoid • Irregular
Bone composition - ANSWER Must be stiff and flexible
Composite like fibre glass
Mass of bone is one-quarter water
Dry mass of bone is 2/3 calcium salts (mostly phosphorus)-hardness, rigidity and
compressive strength
, 1/3 is collagen-toughness and flexibility
Compact(dense) bone - ANSWER - Haversian system (osteon) is basic unit
- Repeated many times
- Haversian canals for blood vessels
- Surrounded by layers of bone (lamellae)
- Osteocytes present within lacunae (holes)-
Cancellous bone - ANSWER Spongy(cancellousor trabecular)
- Lattice meshwork of bony rods
- Gives "springy" aspect of bone
Forces on long bones - ANSWER Compression
Tension-pulling
Shear-angular movements
Bending
Torsion-twisting
Architecture of long bones - ANSWER Shafts are hollow
Stronger than solid rod of same mass
Resists twisting better than solid rod
Expanded ends ensure forces are spread over larger area
Spongy bone and compact bone work together at ends to reduce impact effects
Bone is living tissue - ANSWER • Grows with age
• Repairs at any time
• Dependent upon action of specialised bone cells
• Requires calcium and phosphate
• Electrical field may play a role (muscle activity)
Sub-periosteal bone remodelling - ANSWER Bone is modified by action of cells that can
build or breakdown bone. Cells that build bone are called osteoblasts. Cells that break
down bone are called osteoclasts
Age-related changes in bone - ANSWER • General shape determine by genetics
Verified Solution
Nervous systems - ANSWER • Central nervous system - Brain - Spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system - Peripheral nerves - Sensory system • Autonomic nervous
system - Sympathetic - Parasympathetic
• Enteric nervous system
Skin structure - ANSWER - Epidermis: outside mostly squamous cells
- Dermis: Inner layerthick and contains most living skin components
Heart supplies oxygen and blood to muscles and other organs - ANSWER Red blood
cells carry oxygen, so must be moved around body and to lungs. • Heart increases beat
and amount of blood per beat (stroke volume) to ensure enough oxygen is reaching
target organs
Summary of heat regulation and body temperature in endotherms - ANSWER • Body
temperature regulated within narrow range
• Metabolic rate varies below or above critical range
• Within critical range, circulation or insulation changes to control Tbody
Metabolism and body temperature - ANSWER • Body temperature is highly regulated
over wide range of external temperatures
• Between the lower critical (LCT) and upper critical (UCT) (external) temperatures, the
regulation is passive
• Above UCT, sweating or other processes are initiated to lose heat
• Below LCT, metabolic rate increased to generate more heat
Temperature Regulation - ANSWER • Understand heat balance
• Temperature set point
• Role of ANS and endocrines in varying heat gain or loss depending upon requirements
Heat Balance - ANSWER • Heat In ± Heat Stored = Heat Out
• Heat In ± Heat Stored ± Heat Out = 0
,• Positive - Temperature Increases
• Negative - Temperature Decreases
Temperature set point - ANSWER • Control in hypothalamus, although peripheral
sensors have some role
• Controller senses difference between Tset and Tbody
• Results in various processes that either heat or cool body, most processes regulated
via the autonomic nervous system
Circulatory changes - ANSWER • Vasodilation (Parasympathetic stimulation?) in skin
occurs to remove heat (increase convection)
• Vasoconstriction (Sympathetic stimulation) in skin occurs to conserve heat (decrease
convection)
• Piloerection (increased insulation) caused by sympathetic action ("goose bumps") •
Change in blood flow causes change in skin temperature
Heat balance equation - ANSWER Hrad±Hcond±Hconv±Hevap±Hstor+Hmet = 0
Hrad is radiant heat (solar, diffuse and reflected)
• Hcond is conducted heat (through surface contact)
• Hconv is convective heat (through fluid movement)
• Hevap is heat of evaporation or condensation (water loss or gain)
• Hstor is the heat stored in the body
• Hmet is metabolic heat production (so is always positive in living organism)
Insulation against heat loss - ANSWER External - Clothes - Hair
• Internal - Lipid and its distribution - Circulation
Hypothermia - ANSWER • Reduction of body temperature below set point
• Exposure to cold environments (air or water)
• Unable to produce enough energy to maintain body temperature
• Body temperature begins decreasing, but not necessarily terminal
• Controlled hypothermia used in surgery
Hyperthermia - ANSWER • Exercise-Metabolic heat production and dehydration
• Exposure-External environment heat gain and dehydration
,• Fever-Regulated variation in body temperature set point
Heat storage-fever - ANSWER Regulated change in Tset
Body temperature increases to new set point 38-41 ̊C or febrile range
Reduce growth rate of pathogens or stimulate defence against pathogens
Endogenous pyrogens such as cytokines responsible for new set point
Probably act via prostaglandins, although norepinephrine may also have role
Anatomy and functional anatomy - ANSWER Understandingthe functional attributes of
the skeletal system
Bone
Joints
Muscle
Ligaments&Tendons
Functions of skeletal system - ANSWER • Mechanical
- Weight bearing
- Protection of internal organs
- Rigid links between joints
- Sites for muscular attachment
• Physiological
- Adapts to strength requirements
- Repairs self after breakage
- Storage of calcium and phosphorus
- Bone marrow produces blood cells and part of immune system
Bone types - ANSWER • Long• Short• Flat• Sesamoid • Irregular
Bone composition - ANSWER Must be stiff and flexible
Composite like fibre glass
Mass of bone is one-quarter water
Dry mass of bone is 2/3 calcium salts (mostly phosphorus)-hardness, rigidity and
compressive strength
, 1/3 is collagen-toughness and flexibility
Compact(dense) bone - ANSWER - Haversian system (osteon) is basic unit
- Repeated many times
- Haversian canals for blood vessels
- Surrounded by layers of bone (lamellae)
- Osteocytes present within lacunae (holes)-
Cancellous bone - ANSWER Spongy(cancellousor trabecular)
- Lattice meshwork of bony rods
- Gives "springy" aspect of bone
Forces on long bones - ANSWER Compression
Tension-pulling
Shear-angular movements
Bending
Torsion-twisting
Architecture of long bones - ANSWER Shafts are hollow
Stronger than solid rod of same mass
Resists twisting better than solid rod
Expanded ends ensure forces are spread over larger area
Spongy bone and compact bone work together at ends to reduce impact effects
Bone is living tissue - ANSWER • Grows with age
• Repairs at any time
• Dependent upon action of specialised bone cells
• Requires calcium and phosphate
• Electrical field may play a role (muscle activity)
Sub-periosteal bone remodelling - ANSWER Bone is modified by action of cells that can
build or breakdown bone. Cells that build bone are called osteoblasts. Cells that break
down bone are called osteoclasts
Age-related changes in bone - ANSWER • General shape determine by genetics
