PYC3703
STUDY NOTES
,CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED
Cognitive psychology: The study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about
information.
Dialectic: A developmental process in which ideas evolve through transformation:
o A thesis is proposed – a statement of belief.
o An antithesis then emerges.
o A synthesis integrates both viewpoints.
o The synthesis, enhancing understanding, serves as a new thesis.
Culture: Influences various cognitive processes, including intelligence.
Assumptions in Cognitive Psychology
The mind operates as an information-processing system, akin to a computer:
o It processes, stores, and retrieves symbols.
o It has large, though not unlimited, memory capacity.
o The mind functions like “machines” operating on information.
o Operates on two levels – "software" (mental processes) and "hardware" (brain
structures).
Cognitive psychology assumes that internal mental activities exist and can be studied
scientifically without relying solely on subjective, introspective methods.
(This implies a methodological belief that the mind is amenable to scientific study.)
PHILOSOPHICAL ANTECEDENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY: RATIONALISM VS. EMPIRICISM
Early Roots of Psychology
Two primary approaches to understanding the human mind emerged from:
1. Philosophy
2. Physiology
Rationalism (Plato):
o Knowledge is gained through thinking and logical analysis.
o Reality lies not in observable phenomena but in abstract forms underlying them.
o Knowledge acquisition does not require experiments.
o Vital in developing theories.
o Rene Descartes contributed the idea "Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am),
arguing that senses can be deceptive.
Empiricism (Aristotle):
o Knowledge is acquired through experience and observation (empirical evidence).
o John Locke suggested the concept of "Tabula Rasa" (blank slate) – humans are born
without innate knowledge, seeking knowledge through experience.
Immanuel Kant: Sought to synthesize Descartes' rationalism and Locke’s empiricism.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
,Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition
1. Structuralism: Understanding the mind’s structure
o Wilhelm Wundt focused on analyzing mental perceptions by breaking them down into
components (such as affection, attention, memory, and sensation).
o The goal was to deconstruct the mind into basic elements to understand how they
interact to form the mind.
o Introspection: A structuralist research method involving deliberate inward observation
of information passing through the mind.
2. Functionalism: Understanding the mind’s processes
o Emphasizes the processes of thought rather than its contents.
o Aims to understand actions and motivations.
o Focuses on how the mind operates, rather than its components.
o Led to Pragmatism, where knowledge’s value is validated by its practical utility.
o William James guided functionalism towards pragmatism, while John Dewey applied
a pragmatic approach to education and thinking.
3. Associationism: An integrative synthesis
o Examines how elements in the mind are associated to facilitate learning.
o Associations may arise through:
Contiguity – associating things occurring together.
Similarity – associating things with similar attributes.
Contrast – associating polarities.
o Ebbinghaus applied associationism by memorizing random words, finding that
rehearsal strengthens memory associations.
o Thorndike’s Law of Effect: A stimulus will produce a response if rewarded,
contributing to behaviorism’s foundations.
4. Behaviorism
o Focuses on observable behavior and its relation to environmental stimuli, avoiding
mental processes.
o Seen as an extreme form of associationism.
o Pavlov: Explored involuntary learning, finding that a stimulus linked to an event can
condition responses (Classical conditioning).
Proponents of Behaviorism
o John Watson: Regarded as the "father" of radical behaviorism, advocating a focus on
observable behavior and viewing thought as subvocal speech.
o B.F. Skinner: Proposed that all behavior results from environmental reactions,
dismissing mental mechanisms. Developed operant conditioning, where behavior is
strengthened or weakened based on reinforcement or punishment.
5. Criticisms of Behaviorism
o Behaviorism failed to explain complex mental activities (e.g., language learning,
problem-solving).
o Psychologists wanted to explore not only behavior but internal processes.
o Behaviorist methods often fit animal research better than human studies.
Behaviorists Exploring Internal Processes
The mind was viewed as a "black box" best understood by inputs and outputs, with internal
processes deemed unobservable.
, Tolman criticized radical behaviorism, arguing that purpose and goals shape behavior,
contributing to cognitive psychology.
Bandura: Proposed that learning is often social, influenced by observing others’ rewards and
punishments (Social Learning).
Gestalt Psychology: The Whole is Greater than the Sum of Its Parts
Emphasizes understanding psychological phenomena as organized wholes rather than
breaking them into smaller elements.
Highly critical of behaviorism’s reductionist approach.
For instance, to understand problem-solving, Gestalt psychologists study insights rather than
subvocal processing.
EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitivism: The perspective that much of human behavior can be explained through
cognitive processes.
Rejects the behaviorist notion that mental processes should not be studied due to their
unobservable nature.
Early Role of Psychobiology
Lashley: Challenged the behaviorist view that the brain functions only passively, responding
to environmental cues.
o Proposed that the brain actively organizes behavior.
o Focused on understanding how the brain’s large-scale organization supports complex,
goal-directed actions.
Hebb: Proposed that learning in the brain is based on “cell assemblies.”
o Cell assemblies: Coordinated neural structures that form through frequent stimulation;
these assemblies develop over time as repeated activation strengthens the likelihood
of one neuron firing another.
Noam Chomsky: Criticized Skinner’s idea that language is acquired through environmental
stimuli.
o Emphasized the biological foundation and creative potential of language.
o Disputed behaviorist theories, asserting that language learning could not be explained
by reinforcement alone, as humans generate an infinite range of sentences with ease.
Technology: Engineering, Computation, and Applied Cognitive Psychology
Artificial Intelligence (AI): Seeks to build systems capable of intelligent information
processing.
George Miller: Discovered that people can remember about seven pieces of information.
o Channel capacity: Refers to the amount of a specific type of information an individual
can retain.
Jerry Fodor: Proposed the Modularity of Mind theory, which suggests that the mind is
composed of specialized, distinct modules that process specific types of information.
STUDY NOTES
,CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED
Cognitive psychology: The study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about
information.
Dialectic: A developmental process in which ideas evolve through transformation:
o A thesis is proposed – a statement of belief.
o An antithesis then emerges.
o A synthesis integrates both viewpoints.
o The synthesis, enhancing understanding, serves as a new thesis.
Culture: Influences various cognitive processes, including intelligence.
Assumptions in Cognitive Psychology
The mind operates as an information-processing system, akin to a computer:
o It processes, stores, and retrieves symbols.
o It has large, though not unlimited, memory capacity.
o The mind functions like “machines” operating on information.
o Operates on two levels – "software" (mental processes) and "hardware" (brain
structures).
Cognitive psychology assumes that internal mental activities exist and can be studied
scientifically without relying solely on subjective, introspective methods.
(This implies a methodological belief that the mind is amenable to scientific study.)
PHILOSOPHICAL ANTECEDENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY: RATIONALISM VS. EMPIRICISM
Early Roots of Psychology
Two primary approaches to understanding the human mind emerged from:
1. Philosophy
2. Physiology
Rationalism (Plato):
o Knowledge is gained through thinking and logical analysis.
o Reality lies not in observable phenomena but in abstract forms underlying them.
o Knowledge acquisition does not require experiments.
o Vital in developing theories.
o Rene Descartes contributed the idea "Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am),
arguing that senses can be deceptive.
Empiricism (Aristotle):
o Knowledge is acquired through experience and observation (empirical evidence).
o John Locke suggested the concept of "Tabula Rasa" (blank slate) – humans are born
without innate knowledge, seeking knowledge through experience.
Immanuel Kant: Sought to synthesize Descartes' rationalism and Locke’s empiricism.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
,Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition
1. Structuralism: Understanding the mind’s structure
o Wilhelm Wundt focused on analyzing mental perceptions by breaking them down into
components (such as affection, attention, memory, and sensation).
o The goal was to deconstruct the mind into basic elements to understand how they
interact to form the mind.
o Introspection: A structuralist research method involving deliberate inward observation
of information passing through the mind.
2. Functionalism: Understanding the mind’s processes
o Emphasizes the processes of thought rather than its contents.
o Aims to understand actions and motivations.
o Focuses on how the mind operates, rather than its components.
o Led to Pragmatism, where knowledge’s value is validated by its practical utility.
o William James guided functionalism towards pragmatism, while John Dewey applied
a pragmatic approach to education and thinking.
3. Associationism: An integrative synthesis
o Examines how elements in the mind are associated to facilitate learning.
o Associations may arise through:
Contiguity – associating things occurring together.
Similarity – associating things with similar attributes.
Contrast – associating polarities.
o Ebbinghaus applied associationism by memorizing random words, finding that
rehearsal strengthens memory associations.
o Thorndike’s Law of Effect: A stimulus will produce a response if rewarded,
contributing to behaviorism’s foundations.
4. Behaviorism
o Focuses on observable behavior and its relation to environmental stimuli, avoiding
mental processes.
o Seen as an extreme form of associationism.
o Pavlov: Explored involuntary learning, finding that a stimulus linked to an event can
condition responses (Classical conditioning).
Proponents of Behaviorism
o John Watson: Regarded as the "father" of radical behaviorism, advocating a focus on
observable behavior and viewing thought as subvocal speech.
o B.F. Skinner: Proposed that all behavior results from environmental reactions,
dismissing mental mechanisms. Developed operant conditioning, where behavior is
strengthened or weakened based on reinforcement or punishment.
5. Criticisms of Behaviorism
o Behaviorism failed to explain complex mental activities (e.g., language learning,
problem-solving).
o Psychologists wanted to explore not only behavior but internal processes.
o Behaviorist methods often fit animal research better than human studies.
Behaviorists Exploring Internal Processes
The mind was viewed as a "black box" best understood by inputs and outputs, with internal
processes deemed unobservable.
, Tolman criticized radical behaviorism, arguing that purpose and goals shape behavior,
contributing to cognitive psychology.
Bandura: Proposed that learning is often social, influenced by observing others’ rewards and
punishments (Social Learning).
Gestalt Psychology: The Whole is Greater than the Sum of Its Parts
Emphasizes understanding psychological phenomena as organized wholes rather than
breaking them into smaller elements.
Highly critical of behaviorism’s reductionist approach.
For instance, to understand problem-solving, Gestalt psychologists study insights rather than
subvocal processing.
EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitivism: The perspective that much of human behavior can be explained through
cognitive processes.
Rejects the behaviorist notion that mental processes should not be studied due to their
unobservable nature.
Early Role of Psychobiology
Lashley: Challenged the behaviorist view that the brain functions only passively, responding
to environmental cues.
o Proposed that the brain actively organizes behavior.
o Focused on understanding how the brain’s large-scale organization supports complex,
goal-directed actions.
Hebb: Proposed that learning in the brain is based on “cell assemblies.”
o Cell assemblies: Coordinated neural structures that form through frequent stimulation;
these assemblies develop over time as repeated activation strengthens the likelihood
of one neuron firing another.
Noam Chomsky: Criticized Skinner’s idea that language is acquired through environmental
stimuli.
o Emphasized the biological foundation and creative potential of language.
o Disputed behaviorist theories, asserting that language learning could not be explained
by reinforcement alone, as humans generate an infinite range of sentences with ease.
Technology: Engineering, Computation, and Applied Cognitive Psychology
Artificial Intelligence (AI): Seeks to build systems capable of intelligent information
processing.
George Miller: Discovered that people can remember about seven pieces of information.
o Channel capacity: Refers to the amount of a specific type of information an individual
can retain.
Jerry Fodor: Proposed the Modularity of Mind theory, which suggests that the mind is
composed of specialized, distinct modules that process specific types of information.
