MOI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSY 310: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Growth; this refers to the increase in size, height and weight. It also refers to physical characteristics which
are observable. Growth is measured using weight in kilograms and height in metres. Growth is usually
affected by amount and quality of food taken and the feeding practices. The quality of food can either increase
or reduce the growth of an individual. Growth can also be influenced by diseases and social-emotional status
of an individual.
Development; this refers to process of increase in functionality of a skills or activity. It refers to the process
through which changes occurs from simple to complex, from less mature to more mature ways of thinking,
feeling, co-coordinating, moving and relating. Development can be measured by developmental tests or
observation to children’s skills and abilities. It is a bit difficult to measure development as compared to
growth.
Developmental Psychology- deals with scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional
changes, perception changes that occur in human beings over the course of their lifespan. It examines changes
across a broad range of topics including motor skills, and other psycho-physiological processes, cognitive
development, language acquisition, social, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity
formation.
Importance of the Study of Human Growth and Development
1. To provide the teacher with research knowledge that can be effectively applied to teaching situations.
2. Help the teacher make important judgments in the classroom based on personal skills and
experiences.
3. Understand the challenges that various growth stages present to learners and help them overcome
these challenges.
4. Good understanding of learners’ development helps a teacher create instruction materials appropriate
for their developmental levels.
Characteristics of Development
Development is holistic; it involves various aspects of development which are interrelated and
interdependent.
Development begins from conception and ends at death
Development is continuous process begins from conception until death.
Development occurs in interaction with the environment and the genetic inheritance.
Development is sequential ;it follows a particular pattern for every individual
Development for every individual is unique although it follows a particular pattern and so these
individual differences need to be respected.
CHAPTER TWO: THE CHILD AND THE FAMILY
Child- Legal definition- Anyone under the age of 18yrs (UN, UNICEF).
Some scholars argue that definition is based on demography, economic and related social and attitudinal
factors.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) describe it as the ‘age of nature’, occurring between birth and twelve
years.
Bio-social approach considers childhood as a stage of growth and development, characterized by rapid growth
of brain, immaturity of dentition and digestive tracts.
1
,Psychological approach considers the growth and development stages in its definition of a child e.g.- large
heads and eyes in small bodies, act to trigger instinctive emotions and responses in adults...etc
Definition of a family
- The primary social group, comprising parents, their offspring, and in some cases relatives.
- OR
- Any group of individuals related by blood or descended from an identifiable common ancestor.
Family Roles
1. Physical and Economical - care and provisions e.g. food, shelter, clothing, education
2. Emotional/ Health- psychological support,(identity, love)
3. Spiritual-
4. Social – socialization, culture
Types of families and their influences on a child’s growth and development
1. Nuclear- refers to conjugal families
2. Extended- consanguinal- of the same blood/kindred (network of relatives extending beyond the domestic
group.
3. Same sex headed families (homosexual, Lesbianism)
4. Single father/single mother
5. Blended or step families
6. Traditional families- a middle class family headed by bread winning father and stay at home mother with
biological children.
Prenatal Growth and Development
A person’s unique genetic blue print is contained in the 23 pairs of chromosomes found in every body cell.
Conventionally, chromosomes are numbered from 1 to 22 according to their size in descending (large to
small). The first pair is the largest. The 23rd pair determines a person’s sex. An XX combination indicates a
female and an XY combination a male.
A chromosome is a long thread like structure composed of twisted parallel strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid which carries the genetic instructions in the cell, i.e. the chemical basis of all heredity-directs the growth
and development of the many unique characteristics that an individual is endowed with).
The DNA code is carried on each chromosome and is arranged in thousands of segments called genes (the
basic unit of heredity that directs the development of particular characteristic). Each gene is a unit of DNA
instructions pertaining to some characteristic e.g. eye, hair color, height, right handedness.
At conception, the genes carried n the 23rd chromosome contributed by one’s mother’s ovum are paired with
the genes carried on the 23rd chromosome by one’s father’s sperm. Multiple gene pairs are involved in
directing many complex features of development, such as brain organization, body build, and even some
personality characteristics. Height, for example, is determined by FOUR different pairs of genes. Other simple
traits, e.g. eye color, dimples, freckles are determined by the interaction of a single gene pair.
Dominant and Recessive characteristics
Genotype: Refers to the underlying genetic makeup of an individual
Phenotype: Refers to the traits that are actually displayed .e.g.
Suppose Jane’s genotype includes one gene from the mother with the genetic code for dimples, and this gene
is paired with one from the dad which contains a genetic code for no dimples, when a genotype combines such
conflicting genetic information, the DORMINANT gene will influence the trait actually displayed-in this
case, the dominant gene is one for dimples and one (Jane) will inherit the tendency to develop dimples. Such
2
, traits that require only one member of a gene pair to be dominant are referred to DORMINANT
characteristics.
RECESSIVE gene is one whose instructions are not expresses if combined with a dominant gene. Recessive
genes are expressed only if paired with an identical recessive gene, to be dimple free, you must inherit a NO
DIMPLE/NO DIMPLE gene combination as your genotype.
Dominant characteristics Recessive characteristics
Full lips Thin lips
Curly hair Straight hair
Dark hair Light hair
Normal hearing Congenital deafness
Dimples No dimples
Feet with normal arches Flat feet
N/B There is interplay between heredity and the environment- what we inherit from our parents is a genetic
potential, the expression of which can be influenced by environmental conditions.
The sex chromosomes and sex linked recessive characteristics.
Some recessive characteristics e.g. color blindness and hemophilia (inability for blood to clot properly) are
much more common in males than in females. Why? The answer has to do with the sex chromosomes, the
23rd pair of chromosomes- the ones that determine biological sex. There are two types of sex chromosomes,
the large X and the smaller Y. The larger X chromosomes carries more genes than the smaller Y chromosome,
including genes for traits unrelated to sex.
In females, the 23rd pair is made up of two large X chromosomes. In males, a large X chromosome and a
smaller Y chromosome make up the 23rd pair.
Recessive characteristics normally require the presence of two identical recessive genes for the trait to be
displayed, one on each chromosome in a particular pair, While this is true for females, for males, the smaller
Y chromosome often does not contain a corresponding gene segment to match the one on the X chromosome.
This means that a male can display certain recessive characteristics as the result of having only one recessive
gene carried on the X chromosome of his XY pair.
Traits determined by recessive genes on the X chromosome are referred to as Sex- linked recessive
characteristics e.g. red-green colour blindness, congenital night blindness, haemophilia.
Prenatal development
At conception, chromosomes from the biological mother and father combine to form a single cell-the
fertilized egg or zygote. Over the relatively brief span of nine months, that single cell develops into the
estimated trillion cells that make up a new born baby. The pre natal stage has THREE distinct phases:
1. The germinal period-(Zygotic period) represents the 1st two weeks of prenatal development. Zygote
undergoes rapid cell division before being implanted on the mother’s uterine wall. Some of the Zygote’s
cells eventually form the structures that house and protect the developing fetus and provide nourishment
to the mother.
2. Embryonic period- Begins with week 3 and extends through week 8. During this time of rapid growth and
intensive cell differentiation, the organs and systems of the body form. Genes on the sex chromosomes
and hormonal influences also trigger the initial development of the sex organs. Protectively housed in the
fluid filled amniotic sac, the embryo’s lifeline is the umbilical cord through which it gets nutrients,
oxygen and water and gets rid of carbon monoxide and other wastes. The umbilical cord attaches the
embryo to the placenta, a disk shaped tissue on the mother’s uterine wall. The placenta prevents the
mother’s blood from mingling with that of the developing embryo, acting as a filter to prevent harmful
substances from reaching the embryo.
However, the placenta may not prevent all harmful substances. Harmful agents/substances that cause
abnormal development or birth defects are called TERATOGENS. Generally, the greatest vulnerability to
3
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSY 310: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Growth; this refers to the increase in size, height and weight. It also refers to physical characteristics which
are observable. Growth is measured using weight in kilograms and height in metres. Growth is usually
affected by amount and quality of food taken and the feeding practices. The quality of food can either increase
or reduce the growth of an individual. Growth can also be influenced by diseases and social-emotional status
of an individual.
Development; this refers to process of increase in functionality of a skills or activity. It refers to the process
through which changes occurs from simple to complex, from less mature to more mature ways of thinking,
feeling, co-coordinating, moving and relating. Development can be measured by developmental tests or
observation to children’s skills and abilities. It is a bit difficult to measure development as compared to
growth.
Developmental Psychology- deals with scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional
changes, perception changes that occur in human beings over the course of their lifespan. It examines changes
across a broad range of topics including motor skills, and other psycho-physiological processes, cognitive
development, language acquisition, social, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity
formation.
Importance of the Study of Human Growth and Development
1. To provide the teacher with research knowledge that can be effectively applied to teaching situations.
2. Help the teacher make important judgments in the classroom based on personal skills and
experiences.
3. Understand the challenges that various growth stages present to learners and help them overcome
these challenges.
4. Good understanding of learners’ development helps a teacher create instruction materials appropriate
for their developmental levels.
Characteristics of Development
Development is holistic; it involves various aspects of development which are interrelated and
interdependent.
Development begins from conception and ends at death
Development is continuous process begins from conception until death.
Development occurs in interaction with the environment and the genetic inheritance.
Development is sequential ;it follows a particular pattern for every individual
Development for every individual is unique although it follows a particular pattern and so these
individual differences need to be respected.
CHAPTER TWO: THE CHILD AND THE FAMILY
Child- Legal definition- Anyone under the age of 18yrs (UN, UNICEF).
Some scholars argue that definition is based on demography, economic and related social and attitudinal
factors.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) describe it as the ‘age of nature’, occurring between birth and twelve
years.
Bio-social approach considers childhood as a stage of growth and development, characterized by rapid growth
of brain, immaturity of dentition and digestive tracts.
1
,Psychological approach considers the growth and development stages in its definition of a child e.g.- large
heads and eyes in small bodies, act to trigger instinctive emotions and responses in adults...etc
Definition of a family
- The primary social group, comprising parents, their offspring, and in some cases relatives.
- OR
- Any group of individuals related by blood or descended from an identifiable common ancestor.
Family Roles
1. Physical and Economical - care and provisions e.g. food, shelter, clothing, education
2. Emotional/ Health- psychological support,(identity, love)
3. Spiritual-
4. Social – socialization, culture
Types of families and their influences on a child’s growth and development
1. Nuclear- refers to conjugal families
2. Extended- consanguinal- of the same blood/kindred (network of relatives extending beyond the domestic
group.
3. Same sex headed families (homosexual, Lesbianism)
4. Single father/single mother
5. Blended or step families
6. Traditional families- a middle class family headed by bread winning father and stay at home mother with
biological children.
Prenatal Growth and Development
A person’s unique genetic blue print is contained in the 23 pairs of chromosomes found in every body cell.
Conventionally, chromosomes are numbered from 1 to 22 according to their size in descending (large to
small). The first pair is the largest. The 23rd pair determines a person’s sex. An XX combination indicates a
female and an XY combination a male.
A chromosome is a long thread like structure composed of twisted parallel strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid which carries the genetic instructions in the cell, i.e. the chemical basis of all heredity-directs the growth
and development of the many unique characteristics that an individual is endowed with).
The DNA code is carried on each chromosome and is arranged in thousands of segments called genes (the
basic unit of heredity that directs the development of particular characteristic). Each gene is a unit of DNA
instructions pertaining to some characteristic e.g. eye, hair color, height, right handedness.
At conception, the genes carried n the 23rd chromosome contributed by one’s mother’s ovum are paired with
the genes carried on the 23rd chromosome by one’s father’s sperm. Multiple gene pairs are involved in
directing many complex features of development, such as brain organization, body build, and even some
personality characteristics. Height, for example, is determined by FOUR different pairs of genes. Other simple
traits, e.g. eye color, dimples, freckles are determined by the interaction of a single gene pair.
Dominant and Recessive characteristics
Genotype: Refers to the underlying genetic makeup of an individual
Phenotype: Refers to the traits that are actually displayed .e.g.
Suppose Jane’s genotype includes one gene from the mother with the genetic code for dimples, and this gene
is paired with one from the dad which contains a genetic code for no dimples, when a genotype combines such
conflicting genetic information, the DORMINANT gene will influence the trait actually displayed-in this
case, the dominant gene is one for dimples and one (Jane) will inherit the tendency to develop dimples. Such
2
, traits that require only one member of a gene pair to be dominant are referred to DORMINANT
characteristics.
RECESSIVE gene is one whose instructions are not expresses if combined with a dominant gene. Recessive
genes are expressed only if paired with an identical recessive gene, to be dimple free, you must inherit a NO
DIMPLE/NO DIMPLE gene combination as your genotype.
Dominant characteristics Recessive characteristics
Full lips Thin lips
Curly hair Straight hair
Dark hair Light hair
Normal hearing Congenital deafness
Dimples No dimples
Feet with normal arches Flat feet
N/B There is interplay between heredity and the environment- what we inherit from our parents is a genetic
potential, the expression of which can be influenced by environmental conditions.
The sex chromosomes and sex linked recessive characteristics.
Some recessive characteristics e.g. color blindness and hemophilia (inability for blood to clot properly) are
much more common in males than in females. Why? The answer has to do with the sex chromosomes, the
23rd pair of chromosomes- the ones that determine biological sex. There are two types of sex chromosomes,
the large X and the smaller Y. The larger X chromosomes carries more genes than the smaller Y chromosome,
including genes for traits unrelated to sex.
In females, the 23rd pair is made up of two large X chromosomes. In males, a large X chromosome and a
smaller Y chromosome make up the 23rd pair.
Recessive characteristics normally require the presence of two identical recessive genes for the trait to be
displayed, one on each chromosome in a particular pair, While this is true for females, for males, the smaller
Y chromosome often does not contain a corresponding gene segment to match the one on the X chromosome.
This means that a male can display certain recessive characteristics as the result of having only one recessive
gene carried on the X chromosome of his XY pair.
Traits determined by recessive genes on the X chromosome are referred to as Sex- linked recessive
characteristics e.g. red-green colour blindness, congenital night blindness, haemophilia.
Prenatal development
At conception, chromosomes from the biological mother and father combine to form a single cell-the
fertilized egg or zygote. Over the relatively brief span of nine months, that single cell develops into the
estimated trillion cells that make up a new born baby. The pre natal stage has THREE distinct phases:
1. The germinal period-(Zygotic period) represents the 1st two weeks of prenatal development. Zygote
undergoes rapid cell division before being implanted on the mother’s uterine wall. Some of the Zygote’s
cells eventually form the structures that house and protect the developing fetus and provide nourishment
to the mother.
2. Embryonic period- Begins with week 3 and extends through week 8. During this time of rapid growth and
intensive cell differentiation, the organs and systems of the body form. Genes on the sex chromosomes
and hormonal influences also trigger the initial development of the sex organs. Protectively housed in the
fluid filled amniotic sac, the embryo’s lifeline is the umbilical cord through which it gets nutrients,
oxygen and water and gets rid of carbon monoxide and other wastes. The umbilical cord attaches the
embryo to the placenta, a disk shaped tissue on the mother’s uterine wall. The placenta prevents the
mother’s blood from mingling with that of the developing embryo, acting as a filter to prevent harmful
substances from reaching the embryo.
However, the placenta may not prevent all harmful substances. Harmful agents/substances that cause
abnormal development or birth defects are called TERATOGENS. Generally, the greatest vulnerability to
3
