BHE-20303
1
Shared traits that are attributable to inheritance are called homologous, while those that
evolved independently through convergent evolution are analogous
When animals share a trait due to commen ancestry it is called homologous
The 4 whys of Tinbergen
Evolution, function, development, causation
The tendency to attribute human characteristics to animals is known as
anthropomorphism
Theoretical models are very useful for generating predictions
Not a good description of evolution: change over time
Mutation and genetic drift are random processes
Necessary for natural selection to occur in a population:
1. triats vary
2. traits are inherited
3. different traits have different reproductive success
individuals with higher fitness contribute more individuals to the next generation
Proximate explanations: causation and development
Ultimate explanations: Function and evolution
2
Associative learning: two previously unconnected events become linked
Individuals can learn someting through their own experience (= individual learning, bv
trial and error) or by observing others (= social learning)
Instinct: unlearned, innate behaviour, not based on experience
Benefits of learning; adapt to changing environment, adapt to complex environment,
fine tuning complex behaviour.
If the environment is totally fixed, then behaviour wil never need to be modified, and the
optimal behaviour van be encoded as instinct rahter than being learned
If the best response to a certain stimulus changes each time you encouter it, or stimuli
are rarely encoutered more than once, then learning from past experience has no
benefit.
The opposite of habituation is sensation
, Reinforcer: a positive or negative consequence (reward or punishment) that follows a
stimulus or action
Generalisation: conditioned response occurs with related stimuli
Discrimination: response focuses on specific stimulus
Social facilitation: imitation, local enhancement, stimlus enhancement
In a stable environment you would expect learning to be less important than innate
behaviour
The dear enemy effect is an example of habituation
When the performance of a behaviour by an individual acts as a releaser for the same
behaviour in others, and so initiates the same line of action in the whole group, we refer
to it as social facilitation
The terms nature and nurture refer to the combined infulence of genes and the
environment
3
Signals have specifically evolved to transfer information. So signls are distinct from cues,
which also provide information, but have not evolved specifically to do so
Visual;
1. they are vere fast, conveyinh information essentially instantly between signallers
and revceivers
2. they can potentially work over long distances
3. they are restricted to line-of-sight
Acoustic;
1. are fast and can travel long distance
2. are always temorary, requiring constant energy to maintain
3. emanate from te teheir source, making them easier to eavesdrop
4. are not blocked by opstacles
Olfactory;
1. are very slow
2. useless for time-sensitive signals
3. makes it hard to encode information by producing several signals in quick
succession
Tactile;
1. cannot occur at a distance, only through direct physical contact
2. only between two individuals
3. cannot easily be blocked or intercepted
allogrooming: individuals grooming others members of the same species
Multimodal communication
1
Shared traits that are attributable to inheritance are called homologous, while those that
evolved independently through convergent evolution are analogous
When animals share a trait due to commen ancestry it is called homologous
The 4 whys of Tinbergen
Evolution, function, development, causation
The tendency to attribute human characteristics to animals is known as
anthropomorphism
Theoretical models are very useful for generating predictions
Not a good description of evolution: change over time
Mutation and genetic drift are random processes
Necessary for natural selection to occur in a population:
1. triats vary
2. traits are inherited
3. different traits have different reproductive success
individuals with higher fitness contribute more individuals to the next generation
Proximate explanations: causation and development
Ultimate explanations: Function and evolution
2
Associative learning: two previously unconnected events become linked
Individuals can learn someting through their own experience (= individual learning, bv
trial and error) or by observing others (= social learning)
Instinct: unlearned, innate behaviour, not based on experience
Benefits of learning; adapt to changing environment, adapt to complex environment,
fine tuning complex behaviour.
If the environment is totally fixed, then behaviour wil never need to be modified, and the
optimal behaviour van be encoded as instinct rahter than being learned
If the best response to a certain stimulus changes each time you encouter it, or stimuli
are rarely encoutered more than once, then learning from past experience has no
benefit.
The opposite of habituation is sensation
, Reinforcer: a positive or negative consequence (reward or punishment) that follows a
stimulus or action
Generalisation: conditioned response occurs with related stimuli
Discrimination: response focuses on specific stimulus
Social facilitation: imitation, local enhancement, stimlus enhancement
In a stable environment you would expect learning to be less important than innate
behaviour
The dear enemy effect is an example of habituation
When the performance of a behaviour by an individual acts as a releaser for the same
behaviour in others, and so initiates the same line of action in the whole group, we refer
to it as social facilitation
The terms nature and nurture refer to the combined infulence of genes and the
environment
3
Signals have specifically evolved to transfer information. So signls are distinct from cues,
which also provide information, but have not evolved specifically to do so
Visual;
1. they are vere fast, conveyinh information essentially instantly between signallers
and revceivers
2. they can potentially work over long distances
3. they are restricted to line-of-sight
Acoustic;
1. are fast and can travel long distance
2. are always temorary, requiring constant energy to maintain
3. emanate from te teheir source, making them easier to eavesdrop
4. are not blocked by opstacles
Olfactory;
1. are very slow
2. useless for time-sensitive signals
3. makes it hard to encode information by producing several signals in quick
succession
Tactile;
1. cannot occur at a distance, only through direct physical contact
2. only between two individuals
3. cannot easily be blocked or intercepted
allogrooming: individuals grooming others members of the same species
Multimodal communication
