1
Semantics - Saeed
Contents
Week 1...................................................................................................................................................2
Lecture...............................................................................................................................................2
Chapter 1...........................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 2...........................................................................................................................................5
Week 2...................................................................................................................................................9
Lecture...............................................................................................................................................9
Chapter 3.........................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 4.........................................................................................................................................13
Week 3.................................................................................................................................................14
Chapter 5.........................................................................................................................................14
Week 4.................................................................................................................................................18
Chapter 6.........................................................................................................................................18
Week 5.................................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 7.........................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 8.........................................................................................................................................31
Week 6.................................................................................................................................................34
Chapter 10.1 – 10.5.........................................................................................................................34
Week 7.................................................................................................................................................37
Lecture.............................................................................................................................................37
Overview of symbols for the formulas.................................................................................................37
, 2
Week 1
Lecture
Pragmatc vs semantcs: semantcally a sentence can mean the same as another one but
pragmatcally they can be diferent.
Noun Phrase: hooks onto person or thing in the real world
Sentence: picks out an event or situaton in the real world
Meaning: reference + sense, denotaton. representaton in mental model (mind) (words & sentences
are reflectons of conceptual structures)
I saw a man walking down the street this morning
- Man
o Referent: partcular person in a certain situaton
o Extension: all male individuals who qualify as the referent of man
o Denotaton: relaton word, its extension, referent
Man – set of men
Use of indefnite and context selects one specifc individual
Particular refeerecce Cats were meowing this morning
Geceric refeerecce cats meow
Quactified refeerecce Some cats are meowing
Deictic refeerecce That cat is meowing
Cocstact refeerecce Sun, North Sea, proper names etc. Always refer to the same thing.
Variable refeerecce he, a man, the president of the USA. Can refer to diferent things at diferent
tmes.
Prototype: what you would expect when you think of a thing, the general sense of a thing (ex. how a
child would draw a house)
, 3
Chapter 1
Levels ofe acalysis: diferent levels of looking at sentences
- Phocology looking at sound & how it forms words
- Syctax looking at words & how they form sentences
- Semactics looking at the meanings of words & sentences
Sentences can coctradict each other, be ambiguous or ectail each other. Ectailmect means the
relatonship between sentences (if you know sentence A you know sentence B)
Sigcificatioc process of creatng & interpretng symbols
- Semiotics study of sign systems1
o sigcifier sign
o Sigcified object the sign represents
o Icoc similarity between sign & what it represents
Portrait & real-life subject
o Icdex sign & what it represents are closely associated
Smoke and fre (causal relatonship)
o Symbol conventonal link between sign & signifed
Use of insignia to denote military ranks, black for mourning in the West,
white for mourning in the East
Deficitiocs theory
- In order to give the meaning of linguistc expressions, we should establish defnitons of the
meaning of words
o Words are combined to make sentences, so word defnitons are combined to form
sentence defnitons.
- But, causes problems!
o Circularity of meaning
How can you state a meaning of a word except in other words?
o Is Licguistic kcowledge (the meaning of words) diferent from Eccyclopaedic
kcowledge (the way the world is)?
o How do people’s idiolects (individual’s language) difer?
Metalacguage way to describe semantc units and rules of all languages
Cocvectiocal/literal meacicg context-free element of meaning
Pragmatics study of the processes of listening and the role of them in context
Modules/modularized linguists identfy diferent levels of analysis
Cogcitive Grammar meaning cannot be identfed as a separate level, autonomous from the study
of other levels of grammar.
Lexicoc mental store of the words in a certain language that you know. Not statc, you constantly
learn & forget words.
productivity It’s possible to create new words but it barely ever happens. But you do ofen create
sentences you’ve never said/heard before
recursive allowing repettve embedding or coordinaton of syntactc categories
compositiocal meaning of expression is determined by meaning of its component parts & the way
they are combined
1
De Saussure
, 4
coc-compositiocal meaning of expression is not determined by the meaning of the component
parts
refeerecce relatonship by which language hooks onto the world
Secse meaning
sectecce abstract grammatcal elements obtained from uterances, independent of the speaker.
utteracce speaking/writng a language, form, how a sentence is said.
propositiocs The message of a sentence independent of the form.
- ‘Caesar invaded Gaul’ & ‘Gaul was invaded by Caesar’ mean the same thing
Icfeormatioc Structure other informaton that diferentates sentences
- Caesar invaded Gaul & Gaul was invaded by Caesar have a diferent informaton structure
Figurative non-literal uses of language
- Metaphor, irony, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes etc
Literal lacguage theory metaphors & other non-literal uses of language require a diferent
processing strategy than literal language
Cogcitive semactics literal language theory is mistaken in viewing metaphors as something
diferent from literal language
Semactics relatons of signs to objects to which the signs are applicable (the word ‘whale’ the
actual animal)
Pragmatics relatons of signs to interpreters (the word ‘whale’ the person hearing/reading the
word)
Sectecce meacicg meaning independent of any partcular use
speaker meacicg meaning is incorporated by the speaker into the partcular meaning they want to
convey
, 5
Chapter 22
Refeerricg/decoticg picking out or identfying with words (that dog, Paris, he)
- The thing that’s referred to is called the refeerect/decotatum
o Decote the relatonship between linguistc expressions and the world
o Refeer speaker picking our enttes in the world
‘I do not like this linguistcs course’ I and this linguistis iourse refer to things
in the world, and the nouns I and linguistis iourse denote certain classes of
items
Refeerectial/decotatiocal approach give meaning of words and sentences by showing how they
relate to situatons
Represectatiocal approach emphasis on the way reports about reality are influenced by
conventonal conceptual structures in language.
Extecsioc of an expression set of things which could possibly be the referent of that expression
decotatioc the relatonship between expression and its extension
Descriptioc theory Name is taken as a shorthand or label for knowledge about the referent
- ‘King James I’ could have as descripton ‘King who authorised KJV Bible’ or ‘Gay/Bi Disaster’
o Name James I.
o Deficite descriptioc King of England
Casual theory names are socially inherited or borrowed.
- Someone is given a name, depending on the fate of the person & the group of people using
the name to address this person, the name may be passed to other people. The name might
be used by millions of people who never met the named person
- Groucdicg original name
Natural kicds nouns referring co classes which occur naturally in nature (Girafe, donkey, tree,
iceberg3)
Presuppositioc implicit assumpton about the world or background belief relatng to an uterance
whose truth is taken for granted in discourse
NP can refer to groups of individuals distributively (focus on individual members of group) or
collectively (focus on aggregate)
Quactifiers class of words (each, all, every, some, no)
Lexicalised concepts that correspond to a single word
Utility the more you use a concept the more likely it is to be lexicalised
Ucderextecdicg concepts using a word for only a fragment of what it signifes
- A child using ‘dog’ for only their dog, not the neighbour’s dog
Overextecdicg concepts using a word for more than it signifed
- A child using ‘dog’ for their dog, foxes, cats, goats, pigs and other animals
Necessary acd sufciect cocditiocs needed to describe concepts4
- Characteristic feeatures features that describe a thing
2
Theme: dogs & birds
3
Not for long w/ global warming
4
What makes a cat a cat?
Semantics - Saeed
Contents
Week 1...................................................................................................................................................2
Lecture...............................................................................................................................................2
Chapter 1...........................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 2...........................................................................................................................................5
Week 2...................................................................................................................................................9
Lecture...............................................................................................................................................9
Chapter 3.........................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 4.........................................................................................................................................13
Week 3.................................................................................................................................................14
Chapter 5.........................................................................................................................................14
Week 4.................................................................................................................................................18
Chapter 6.........................................................................................................................................18
Week 5.................................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 7.........................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 8.........................................................................................................................................31
Week 6.................................................................................................................................................34
Chapter 10.1 – 10.5.........................................................................................................................34
Week 7.................................................................................................................................................37
Lecture.............................................................................................................................................37
Overview of symbols for the formulas.................................................................................................37
, 2
Week 1
Lecture
Pragmatc vs semantcs: semantcally a sentence can mean the same as another one but
pragmatcally they can be diferent.
Noun Phrase: hooks onto person or thing in the real world
Sentence: picks out an event or situaton in the real world
Meaning: reference + sense, denotaton. representaton in mental model (mind) (words & sentences
are reflectons of conceptual structures)
I saw a man walking down the street this morning
- Man
o Referent: partcular person in a certain situaton
o Extension: all male individuals who qualify as the referent of man
o Denotaton: relaton word, its extension, referent
Man – set of men
Use of indefnite and context selects one specifc individual
Particular refeerecce Cats were meowing this morning
Geceric refeerecce cats meow
Quactified refeerecce Some cats are meowing
Deictic refeerecce That cat is meowing
Cocstact refeerecce Sun, North Sea, proper names etc. Always refer to the same thing.
Variable refeerecce he, a man, the president of the USA. Can refer to diferent things at diferent
tmes.
Prototype: what you would expect when you think of a thing, the general sense of a thing (ex. how a
child would draw a house)
, 3
Chapter 1
Levels ofe acalysis: diferent levels of looking at sentences
- Phocology looking at sound & how it forms words
- Syctax looking at words & how they form sentences
- Semactics looking at the meanings of words & sentences
Sentences can coctradict each other, be ambiguous or ectail each other. Ectailmect means the
relatonship between sentences (if you know sentence A you know sentence B)
Sigcificatioc process of creatng & interpretng symbols
- Semiotics study of sign systems1
o sigcifier sign
o Sigcified object the sign represents
o Icoc similarity between sign & what it represents
Portrait & real-life subject
o Icdex sign & what it represents are closely associated
Smoke and fre (causal relatonship)
o Symbol conventonal link between sign & signifed
Use of insignia to denote military ranks, black for mourning in the West,
white for mourning in the East
Deficitiocs theory
- In order to give the meaning of linguistc expressions, we should establish defnitons of the
meaning of words
o Words are combined to make sentences, so word defnitons are combined to form
sentence defnitons.
- But, causes problems!
o Circularity of meaning
How can you state a meaning of a word except in other words?
o Is Licguistic kcowledge (the meaning of words) diferent from Eccyclopaedic
kcowledge (the way the world is)?
o How do people’s idiolects (individual’s language) difer?
Metalacguage way to describe semantc units and rules of all languages
Cocvectiocal/literal meacicg context-free element of meaning
Pragmatics study of the processes of listening and the role of them in context
Modules/modularized linguists identfy diferent levels of analysis
Cogcitive Grammar meaning cannot be identfed as a separate level, autonomous from the study
of other levels of grammar.
Lexicoc mental store of the words in a certain language that you know. Not statc, you constantly
learn & forget words.
productivity It’s possible to create new words but it barely ever happens. But you do ofen create
sentences you’ve never said/heard before
recursive allowing repettve embedding or coordinaton of syntactc categories
compositiocal meaning of expression is determined by meaning of its component parts & the way
they are combined
1
De Saussure
, 4
coc-compositiocal meaning of expression is not determined by the meaning of the component
parts
refeerecce relatonship by which language hooks onto the world
Secse meaning
sectecce abstract grammatcal elements obtained from uterances, independent of the speaker.
utteracce speaking/writng a language, form, how a sentence is said.
propositiocs The message of a sentence independent of the form.
- ‘Caesar invaded Gaul’ & ‘Gaul was invaded by Caesar’ mean the same thing
Icfeormatioc Structure other informaton that diferentates sentences
- Caesar invaded Gaul & Gaul was invaded by Caesar have a diferent informaton structure
Figurative non-literal uses of language
- Metaphor, irony, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes etc
Literal lacguage theory metaphors & other non-literal uses of language require a diferent
processing strategy than literal language
Cogcitive semactics literal language theory is mistaken in viewing metaphors as something
diferent from literal language
Semactics relatons of signs to objects to which the signs are applicable (the word ‘whale’ the
actual animal)
Pragmatics relatons of signs to interpreters (the word ‘whale’ the person hearing/reading the
word)
Sectecce meacicg meaning independent of any partcular use
speaker meacicg meaning is incorporated by the speaker into the partcular meaning they want to
convey
, 5
Chapter 22
Refeerricg/decoticg picking out or identfying with words (that dog, Paris, he)
- The thing that’s referred to is called the refeerect/decotatum
o Decote the relatonship between linguistc expressions and the world
o Refeer speaker picking our enttes in the world
‘I do not like this linguistcs course’ I and this linguistis iourse refer to things
in the world, and the nouns I and linguistis iourse denote certain classes of
items
Refeerectial/decotatiocal approach give meaning of words and sentences by showing how they
relate to situatons
Represectatiocal approach emphasis on the way reports about reality are influenced by
conventonal conceptual structures in language.
Extecsioc of an expression set of things which could possibly be the referent of that expression
decotatioc the relatonship between expression and its extension
Descriptioc theory Name is taken as a shorthand or label for knowledge about the referent
- ‘King James I’ could have as descripton ‘King who authorised KJV Bible’ or ‘Gay/Bi Disaster’
o Name James I.
o Deficite descriptioc King of England
Casual theory names are socially inherited or borrowed.
- Someone is given a name, depending on the fate of the person & the group of people using
the name to address this person, the name may be passed to other people. The name might
be used by millions of people who never met the named person
- Groucdicg original name
Natural kicds nouns referring co classes which occur naturally in nature (Girafe, donkey, tree,
iceberg3)
Presuppositioc implicit assumpton about the world or background belief relatng to an uterance
whose truth is taken for granted in discourse
NP can refer to groups of individuals distributively (focus on individual members of group) or
collectively (focus on aggregate)
Quactifiers class of words (each, all, every, some, no)
Lexicalised concepts that correspond to a single word
Utility the more you use a concept the more likely it is to be lexicalised
Ucderextecdicg concepts using a word for only a fragment of what it signifes
- A child using ‘dog’ for only their dog, not the neighbour’s dog
Overextecdicg concepts using a word for more than it signifed
- A child using ‘dog’ for their dog, foxes, cats, goats, pigs and other animals
Necessary acd sufciect cocditiocs needed to describe concepts4
- Characteristic feeatures features that describe a thing
2
Theme: dogs & birds
3
Not for long w/ global warming
4
What makes a cat a cat?
