Doing research in the real world - Gray & Jensen (2022)
Chapter 1: Introduction
Research = systematic, organised effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a solution to
increase knowledge → find the relation between 2 variables: independent variable = variable the
researcher has control over → dependent variable = response measured → 2 forms of research:
1. Applied research: practical focus and measurable outputs, creating solutions to social or
organisational problems (the public and organisational stakeholders).
2. Basic research: building a theory, advancing knowledge, developing universal principles,
producing findings of significance and value to society.
→ challenges: (a) needs to have an inter-disciplinary approach (input from different
backgrounds), (b) need access to social settings (that are not always easily available), (c) may have
to be modified or canceled.
Real world = any setting where humans come together for communication and relationships →
transforming, understanding and measuring an uncontrolled environment.
Research process: identify research area -> select topic -> formulate research objectives ->
decide approach -> formulate a plan -> collect info -> analyse data -> present findings.
Complex problem = a problem caused from multiple angles/actors, external (climate change) and
internal factors (policy choices of the government), that causes deeper rooted problems to rise to
the surface → properties: (a) unpredictable and uncertain, (b) multi-dimensional, (c) multiple
actors, (d) different conflicting facts, values, perspectives, (e) different perceptions of the
problem definition, roots and solutions, (f) rules and regulations about management and
markets.
Theory = interrelated constructs, definitions and propositions to explain and predict phenomena
→ example: theory of business failure = factors that explain FEX. poor web design, product
design faults and a lack of investment.
Chapter 2: Theoretical perspectives and research methodologies
Deductive approach = engage theories before undertaking the research → hypothesis testing,
after which a principle is confirmed, reluted or modified.
Inductive approach = theory is the result of research → discovering a binding principle.
→ these approaches can also be combined.
Ontology = understanding what is → epistemology = understanding what it means to know.
Theoretical perspectives:
Positivism = reality exists external to the researcher (recognises only that which can be
scientifically verified) → constructivism = truth and meaning are created by a subject’s
interactions with the world (meaning is constructed, not discovered).
Interpretivism = looks for culturally derived and historically situated → types:
- Symbolic interactionism: people interpret the meaning of actions and objects and act
upon these interpretations → meanings arise from social interaction.
- Phenomenology: understanding social reality is grounded in experiences of this reality.
- Realism: knowledge advances through theory-building and discoveries add to what is
already known.
- Hermeneutics: interpretation to achieve deeper levels of knowledge and
self-understanding.
- Naturalistic inquiry: there are multiple constructed realities that are studied holistically.
, Critical inquiry = certain groups in society are privileged and exert force on other groups → so,
ideas are mediated by power relations in society.
Postmodernism = emphasising multiplicity, ambiguity, ambivalence and fragmentation.
Pragmatism = whether a proposition/idea suits a purpose and is capable of creating action.
Research methodologies:
Method Emphasis Example
(Quasi-)Experimental - Reproducing lab experiments Testing the effectiveness of
research: experimental - Generation of hypotheses e-learning by dividing a group
and control group. - Control of variables into traditional, classroom
- Accurate measurement of outcomes learning and specially
- Generalisation from samples to similar designed e-learning.
populations
Phenomenological - Emphasises inductive logic Researchers rent a flat in an
research: producing - Seeks subjective opinions and area with a high prostitution
thick descriptions of interpretations rate to find out via trust
people’s experiences - Relies on qualitative data analysis relationships why the rate is
and perspectives in - Not concerned with generalisations to larger so high.
natural settings. populations, but with contextual description.
Analytical surveys: test a - Deductive approach Survey sent out by a
theory in the field - Drawing a representative sample government department to
through the association - Control of variables explore the correlation
between variables. - Qualitative and quantitative data generation between levels of household
- Generalisability of results recycling and other variables.
Action research: close - Involves researchers and practitioners A group of teachers use 4
collaboration and - Can be highly structured schools as experimental and 4
promoting change - Can be unstructured and inductive as control groups to find out
within organisations. - Seeking info via case studies why the educational position
of children is low.
Heuristic inquiry: focus - Deep personal questioning of problem An Operations Director enters
on self-discoveries, - Using intuition to understand a deep personal reflection
awareness and - Reviewing all data from personal after finding out he is not
enhanced experiences promoted to CEO.
understanding. - Forming a creative synthesis with ideas for
and against a proposition
Timescale: short-term: cross-sectional study = snapshot, where data are collected at one point
in time → long-term: longitudinal study = study change and development over time.
(1) Exploratory studies: reading literature, talking to experts and conducting focus groups.
(2) Descriptive studies: provide a picture of a phenomenon as it naturally occurs → BUT,
cannot explain why an event has occurred.
(3) Explanatory studies: explain and account for descriptive info → ask why and how.
(4) Interpretive studies: explore people’s experiences and views of those experiences.
→ can also use multiple studies → leads to triangulation = collecting data over different times
and from different sources.
Chapter 3: Selecting and planning research proposals and projects
Chapter 1: Introduction
Research = systematic, organised effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a solution to
increase knowledge → find the relation between 2 variables: independent variable = variable the
researcher has control over → dependent variable = response measured → 2 forms of research:
1. Applied research: practical focus and measurable outputs, creating solutions to social or
organisational problems (the public and organisational stakeholders).
2. Basic research: building a theory, advancing knowledge, developing universal principles,
producing findings of significance and value to society.
→ challenges: (a) needs to have an inter-disciplinary approach (input from different
backgrounds), (b) need access to social settings (that are not always easily available), (c) may have
to be modified or canceled.
Real world = any setting where humans come together for communication and relationships →
transforming, understanding and measuring an uncontrolled environment.
Research process: identify research area -> select topic -> formulate research objectives ->
decide approach -> formulate a plan -> collect info -> analyse data -> present findings.
Complex problem = a problem caused from multiple angles/actors, external (climate change) and
internal factors (policy choices of the government), that causes deeper rooted problems to rise to
the surface → properties: (a) unpredictable and uncertain, (b) multi-dimensional, (c) multiple
actors, (d) different conflicting facts, values, perspectives, (e) different perceptions of the
problem definition, roots and solutions, (f) rules and regulations about management and
markets.
Theory = interrelated constructs, definitions and propositions to explain and predict phenomena
→ example: theory of business failure = factors that explain FEX. poor web design, product
design faults and a lack of investment.
Chapter 2: Theoretical perspectives and research methodologies
Deductive approach = engage theories before undertaking the research → hypothesis testing,
after which a principle is confirmed, reluted or modified.
Inductive approach = theory is the result of research → discovering a binding principle.
→ these approaches can also be combined.
Ontology = understanding what is → epistemology = understanding what it means to know.
Theoretical perspectives:
Positivism = reality exists external to the researcher (recognises only that which can be
scientifically verified) → constructivism = truth and meaning are created by a subject’s
interactions with the world (meaning is constructed, not discovered).
Interpretivism = looks for culturally derived and historically situated → types:
- Symbolic interactionism: people interpret the meaning of actions and objects and act
upon these interpretations → meanings arise from social interaction.
- Phenomenology: understanding social reality is grounded in experiences of this reality.
- Realism: knowledge advances through theory-building and discoveries add to what is
already known.
- Hermeneutics: interpretation to achieve deeper levels of knowledge and
self-understanding.
- Naturalistic inquiry: there are multiple constructed realities that are studied holistically.
, Critical inquiry = certain groups in society are privileged and exert force on other groups → so,
ideas are mediated by power relations in society.
Postmodernism = emphasising multiplicity, ambiguity, ambivalence and fragmentation.
Pragmatism = whether a proposition/idea suits a purpose and is capable of creating action.
Research methodologies:
Method Emphasis Example
(Quasi-)Experimental - Reproducing lab experiments Testing the effectiveness of
research: experimental - Generation of hypotheses e-learning by dividing a group
and control group. - Control of variables into traditional, classroom
- Accurate measurement of outcomes learning and specially
- Generalisation from samples to similar designed e-learning.
populations
Phenomenological - Emphasises inductive logic Researchers rent a flat in an
research: producing - Seeks subjective opinions and area with a high prostitution
thick descriptions of interpretations rate to find out via trust
people’s experiences - Relies on qualitative data analysis relationships why the rate is
and perspectives in - Not concerned with generalisations to larger so high.
natural settings. populations, but with contextual description.
Analytical surveys: test a - Deductive approach Survey sent out by a
theory in the field - Drawing a representative sample government department to
through the association - Control of variables explore the correlation
between variables. - Qualitative and quantitative data generation between levels of household
- Generalisability of results recycling and other variables.
Action research: close - Involves researchers and practitioners A group of teachers use 4
collaboration and - Can be highly structured schools as experimental and 4
promoting change - Can be unstructured and inductive as control groups to find out
within organisations. - Seeking info via case studies why the educational position
of children is low.
Heuristic inquiry: focus - Deep personal questioning of problem An Operations Director enters
on self-discoveries, - Using intuition to understand a deep personal reflection
awareness and - Reviewing all data from personal after finding out he is not
enhanced experiences promoted to CEO.
understanding. - Forming a creative synthesis with ideas for
and against a proposition
Timescale: short-term: cross-sectional study = snapshot, where data are collected at one point
in time → long-term: longitudinal study = study change and development over time.
(1) Exploratory studies: reading literature, talking to experts and conducting focus groups.
(2) Descriptive studies: provide a picture of a phenomenon as it naturally occurs → BUT,
cannot explain why an event has occurred.
(3) Explanatory studies: explain and account for descriptive info → ask why and how.
(4) Interpretive studies: explore people’s experiences and views of those experiences.
→ can also use multiple studies → leads to triangulation = collecting data over different times
and from different sources.
Chapter 3: Selecting and planning research proposals and projects
