NR 507 Patho Final Study guide Completed

Uterine Prolapse REPRODUCTIVE descent of cervix or entire uterus into vaginal canal. In severe cases the uterus falls completely through the vagina and protrudes from the introitus. Symptoms of other pelvic floor disorders may also be present. Tx depends on severity of symptoms and physical condition of woman. First line treatment is often a pessary- removable mechanical device that holds uterus in position. The pelvic fascia may be strengthened through kegels or by estrogen therapy in menopausal women. Healthy BMI, preventing constipation, and treating chronic cough may also help. Surgical repair with or without hysterectomy is the last resort. Page-771 fig 25.11 -Dropping of the cervix or the entire uterus into the vaginal canal. -In severe cases the uterus completely through the vagina and protrudes from the introitus. -Symptoms of other pelvic floor disorders may also be present. Symptoms: urinary-sensation of incomplete emptying of bladder, incontinence,frequency,bladder splinting to accomplish voiding. Bowel-constipation or feeling of rectal fullness, difficult defecation, stool or flatus incontinence. *Pain or bulging includes pelvic pressure, low back pain, and vagina, bladder or rectum bulging. *Sexual-decreased sensation, lubrication or arousal. -Dyspareunia Treatment: -Depends on age and severity. -Isometric exercise-strengthen the pubococcygeal muscle. KEGELS* -Estrogen-to improve tone and vascularity of fascial support POSTMENOPAUSAL* -Pessary—a removable device to hold pelvic organs in place. -Weight loss -Stool softeners to avoid constipation -tx of lung and cough conditions Endometrial cycle and occurrence of ovulation Manifestation of female reproductive functioning is menstrual bleeding, which starts with menarche (1st period) and ends with menopause (cessation of menstrual flow for 1 year). Average age of menarche is 12 with a range of 9-17. Appears to be r/t body weight, especially body fat ratio. At first cycles are anovulatory and vary from 10-60 days or . Then in adulthood range form 25-35 days. Length varies considerably. Cycle and regular ovulation are dependent on • The activity of gonadostat • Initial pituitary secretion of gonadotropin FSH • Estrogen positive feedback for the preovulatory FSH and LH surge, oocyte maturation, and corpus luteum formation and production of progesterone. The average menstrual cycle lasts 27 to 30 days and consists of three phases, which are named for ovarian and endometrial changes: the follicular/proliferative phase, the luteal/secretory phase, and the ischemic/menstrual phase. Phase 1-is the follicular phase in which begins on day one of one’s menstrual cycle. It lasts until about day 14. -In phase 1 the endometrium grows to form a lush lining inside of the uterus. Phase 2: Luteal phase-this is where the body secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone. -These hormones work together to prepare the lining of the uterus for implantation. -This last for 12 days. Phase 3: Menstrual phase-The estrogen and progesterone start to decline and the endometrial lining begins to shed. This lasts for 3-5 days and the process restarts. Ovulation -Release of ovum -Present at the beginning of the luteal/secretory phase. -The ovarian follicle begins to transform into the corpus luteum. -Pulsatile secretion of the LH from the anterior pituitary stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone. -This will initiate the secretory phase of endometrial development. -Glands and blood vessels in the endometrium branch and curl through a functional layer, and the glands begin to secrete a thin glycogen-containing fluid= the secretory phase. *If conception occurs the nutrient-laden endometrium is ready for implantation. *The HCG hormone is secreted 3 days after fertilization by blastocytes and maintains the corpus luteum once implantation occurs at day 6 or 7. *HCG can be detected in maternal blood or urine about 8-10 days after ovulation. *Production of estrogen and progesterone continue until placenta can adequately maintain hormonal production. *Ovulatory cycles have a length of 24-26.5 days. *The primary ovarian follicle requires 10-12.5 days to develop. *The luteal phase appears at 14 days. Ovarian events of the menstrual cycle are controlled by gonadotropins. High FSH levels stimulate follicle and ovum maturation (follicular phase), then a surge of LH causes ovulation, which is followed by development of the corpus luteum (luteal phase). Ovarian hormones control the uterine (endometrial) events of the menstrual cycle. During the follicular/proliferative phase of the ovarian cycle, estrogen produced by the follicle causes the endometrium to proliferate (proliferative phase) and induces the LH surge and progesterone production in the granulosa layer. During the luteal/secretory phase, estrogen maintains the thickened endometrium, and progesterone causes it to develop blood vessels and secretory glands (secretory phase). As the corpus luteum degenerates, production of both hormones drops sharply, and the “starved” endometrium degenerates and sloughs off, causing menstruation, the ischemic/menstrual phase. Cyclic changes in hormone levels also cause thinning and thickening of the vaginal epithelium, thinning and thickening of cervical secretions, and changes in basal body temperature. PCOS Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a difficult syndrome to diagnose because several factors are involved. It is a syndrome in which at least two of the following are present: oligo-ovulation or anovulation, elevated levels of androgens, or clinical signs of hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovaries. Prolonged anovulation leads to infertility, menstrual bleeding disorders, hirsutism, acne, endometrial hyperplasia, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes mellitus in women with hyperinsulinemia. Presenting s/s: obesity, menstrual disturbance, oligomenorrhea, amenorrhea, regular menstruation, hyperandrogenism, infertility or they could be asymptomatic. Diagnosis of PCOS is based on evidence of androgen excess, chronic anovulation, and inappropriate gonadotropin secretion. Tests for impaired glucose tolerance are recommended. As stated, polycystic ovaries do noT have to be present and, conversely, their presence alone does not establish the diagnosis. Goals of treatment include reversing signs and symptoms of androgen excess, instituting cyclic menstruation, restoring fertility, and ameliorating any associated metabolic or endocrine, or both, disturbances. *Most common cause of anovulation and ovulatory dysfunction in women. *Leading cause of infertility and most common endocrine disturbance. *Mostly common in younger women *Usually has two/three of the following: irregular ovulation, elevated levels of androgens (testosterone), and the appearance of polycystic ovaries on ultrasound. *Polycystic ovaries do not need to be present to dx POS. *Thyroid dysfunction, hyperprolactinemia, and congenital adrenal hyperplasia must be ruled out first. *Associated with metabolic dysfunction, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and obesity. *Strong genetic component and possibly differentially inherited. *Difficult to diagnose as symptoms may change over time. *80% of women have one or more of the symptoms with normal ovaries. *More prominent sx as we age. *May be associated with Cushing’s syndrome, acromegaly, premature ovarian failure, obesity, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, thyroid disease and androgen producing adrenal tumors. Pathophysiology: *Underlying cause is unknown *Genetic involvement suggested because of steroid and androgen biosynthesis. *No single factor accounts for abnormalities of pcos. ***A HYPERANDROGENIC STATE IS A CARDINAL GEATURE IN THE PATHOGENSIS OF PCOS*** -3 X LIKELY TO HAVE INSULIN RESISTENCE. *Insulin stimulates androgen secretion by the ovarian stroma and reduces the serum sex hormone-binding globulin. * Free testosterone levels increase *Excessive androgens affect follicular growth and insulin affects follicular decline by suppressing apoptosis Decreased intraovarian receptors for estrogen receptor -a- or insulin like growth factor 1, increased leptin levels, or direct infrared redaction select ovarian cells. *Intrauterine and early child enviroment contribute to childhood development. *Weight gain aggravates symptoms and women will have an increased leptin level. *Leptin levels are increased in thin women as well *Leptin influences the hypothalamic pulsatility of GNRH and interaction with HPO. *Dysfunction in ovarian follicle development results from inappropriate gondatropin secretes and triggers the beginning of anovulation. *FSH is low and LH are high. *Persistent LH elevation causes an increase in androgens *DHEA (in adrenal glands and testosterone). And Androstenedione and dhea in the ovary. *Characterized by excessive levels of androgen and estrogen. -increased androgen contributes to a premature follicular failure (anovulation). -Persistent anovulation causes the pearly white smooth capsules (polycystic ovaries). -Thickening of the tunica, increased cortical stromal thickening, and hyperplasia. -**Women with PCOS 3 x greater of developing uterine cancer. Clinical Manifestations: *Appear within 2 years of puberty. *May not present until normal menstrual function or pregnancy. *Obese *Anovulation, hyperandrogenism, insulin resistance *infertility, hirsutism, acne, dysfunctional bleeding. *More likely to experience sleep apnea. Evaluation and Treatment: *dx is made based on androgen excess, chronic anovulation, and sonographic evidence of polycystic ovaries. *Must have 2 -3 of these. *Impaired glucose tolerance test is recommended *Goals are to suppress androgen, instituting menstruation, restore fertility, and reduce endocrine disturbance. **FIRST LINE TREATMENT= COMBINED ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES** -This helps to initiate regular menses. -Lifestyle modifications= exercise and weight loss. --Insulin resistance= metformin -If pregnancy is not desired- progesterone therapy is important to oppose estrogen effects on the endometrium to help monthly bleeding. **FOR OBESE WOMEN LIFESTYLE MODIFICATIONS ARE FIRST LINE** -CLOMIPHENE CITRATE CAN BE USED TO FACILITATE OVULATION* Testicular cancer & Risk factors Highly treatable, usually curable cancer most often develops in young and middle aged men. Rare, but most common form of cancer between young men 15-35. More common on R side than left. Germ cell tumors arising from male gametes: seminomans and nonseminomas. Seminomas are most common, least aggressive. Nonseminomas include embryonal carcinomas, teratomas, and choriocarcinomas, most aggressive but rare. Neoplasm cause is unknown. Genetic predisposition is suggested d/t incidence in brothers, identical twins and close male relatives. Risk factors: cryptochordism- neoplasms develop more commonly in contralateral testis. Abnormal testicular development, HIV and AIDS, Klinefelter syndrome, and hx of testicular cancer. Symptoms that require evaluation for Breast Cancer Clinical manifestation Pathophysiology Chest pain Metastasis to lung Dilated blood vessels Obstruction of venous return by fast growing tumor Dimpling of skin Can occur with invasion of dermal lymphatics because of retraction of cooper ligament Edeme of arm Local inflammation of lymphatic obstruction Hemorrhage Erosion of blood vessels Local pain Local obstruction by tumor Nipple/areolar eczema Paget disease Nipple discharge in a nonlactating woman Spontaneous and intermittent d/c caused by tumor obstruction