BUAD 309 Exam #2 With Complete Solutions.

Describe the three key elements of motivation the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal Motivation cannot be directly measured; it is usually inferred from other key elements -Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. -Direction is the orientation of effort toward goals that benefits the organization; it is where someone puts there effort. -Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort; motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goals. Performance is believed to be a function of ability and motivation. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today -Hierarchy of Needs Theory -Theory X and Theory Y -Two-Factor Theory -McClelland's Theory of Needs -These theories provided the foundation for much research as well as new theories. -They are also still used by managers, probably because of their intuitive appeal. Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. e.g., if you perceive a pay increase as praise for work well done, motivation may be enhanced; it's a different interpretation of the meaning of money - control versus recognition Understand the implications of employee engagement for management ... Compare and contrast goal setting theory and management by objectives. ... Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory. -Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual's purpose directs action. -Reinforcement theory, in contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. -The two theories are clearly at odds philosophically. -Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused, while goal-setting theory places a great deal of evidence on cognition (goal acceptance, commitment) as a mediator of the relationship between the goals and performance. Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory ... Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees An employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he/she believes that: Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal (Instrumentality). A good appraisal will lead to rewards (Expectancy). The rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals (Valence). Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs -Physiological needs that include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. -Safety needs that include security and protection from physical and emotional harm. -Social needs and it includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. -Esteem: Internal well-being including self-respect, achievement, autonomy, independence and external well being including recognition, status, and attention -Self-actualization needs. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. Proposed by Douglas McGregor: Theory X assumptions are basically negative. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. They must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment. Theory Y assumptions are basically positive. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. The average employee can learn to accept, and even seek, responsibility. What are the implications for managers? This is best explained by using Maslow's framework Theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. There is no evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is valid. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene Theory) -Satisfaction and dissatisfaction cannot be measured on a single continuum because they are different constructs -Satisfaction derives from the intrinsic nature of the work (motivating factors) -Dissatisfaction is caused by failure to provide for basic needs; it is caused by extrinsic factors (hygiene factors) -Based on the premises above, extrinsic factors (pay, benefits, job security, etc.) are related to job dissatisfaction, but not satisfaction; when they are adequate, you will be neither satisfied or dissatisfied -Satisfaction can only be influenced by intrinsic factors (personal growth opportunities, promotions, recognition, achievement, etc.). When these are present, you will be satisfied. When they are absent, you will be in a neutral state with regards to satisfaction Criticisms of Herzberg's theory -Limited because it relies on self-reports - he asked people to list what they found satisfying versus dissatisfying at work. -The reliability of methodology is questioned. -No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized, so he forced people to group factors into the two categories. -Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity, but the research methodology he used looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity. -Typically when we study motivation, we do so because we are interested in the relationship between motivation and performance. McClelland's Theory of Needs The theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. -Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. -Need for power (nPow): the need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise. -Need for affiliation (nAff): is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships While nAch does seem to be related to success in some jobs, it is difficult to measure and has very little practical utility Contemporary Theories of Motivation Self-Determination Theory cognitive evaluation theory Goal-Setting Theory Goal Acceptance Self-Determination Theory -proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, loose interest when you have no control -Anything that makes a previously enjoyed activity feel like an obligation rather than a freely chosen activity will negatively impact motivation -Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. e.g., if you perceive a pay increase as praise for work well done, motivation may be enhanced; it's a different interpretation of the meaning of money - control versus recognition cognitive evaluation theory which posits that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task (e.g., golf). People paid for work feel less like they want to do it and more like they have to it. not true or proven Effects of extrinsic rewards -When extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for performance, employees feel they are doing a good job more for the reward than for the intrinsic enjoyment of the work. -Eliminating extrinsic rewards can also shift an individual's perception of why one works on a task from an external to an internal explanation. e.g., Someone retires from a website development job and then volunteers to help a non-profit company develop their website may conclude that he must enjoy the work b/c he is willing to do it for free Goal-Setting Theory proposed by Edwin Locke Goals tell an employee where to direct their effort and how much effort is needed. Evidence of thousands of studies strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance, that difficult (but attainable), goals when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that goals combined with feedback leads to higher performance than goals without feedback. Why do goals improve performance? -Specific goals are salient, they get our attention -Difficult goals energize our efforts -Difficult goals increase persistence -Feedback helps us identify discrepancies and discrepant information guides behavior Goal Acceptance -early researchers assumed that if employees participate in the goal setting process, performance would improve -Evidence is mixed with most research indicating that it impacts goal acceptance (willingness to work toward the goal) -Participation may be more important to goal commitment (persist toward goal attainment even when obstacles are encountered) -Without participation, the purpose and the importance of the goal need to be emphasized for goal setting to work. -Goal commitment: for an individual to commit to the goal, he must believe he can achieve it and want to achieve it. Management by Objectives Organizational Practice based on goal setting theory. Four common components: -Specific, measurable and attainable goals -Participation in goal setting process -Time bound -Performance feedback Three factors that can cause failure -Insufficient rewards tied to goal accomplishment -Unrealistic goals -Lack of commitment to the goals by top management Contemporary Theories of Motivation Self-Efficacy Theory Goal-Setting vs. Reinforcement Theory Operant conditioning theory Equity Theory Interactional Justice Informational Justice Expectancy theory Self-Efficacy Theory -based on the assumption that people who believe that they have the ability to perform a task will be more likely to succeed. -The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed -When obstacles occur, people with low self-efficacy are more likely to give up while those high in self-efficacy will persist to meet the challenge -Individuals high in self-efficacy are more likely to respond to negative feedback by increasing effort and motivation while those low in self-efficacy are more likely to reduce effort and motivation Four major ways to increase self-efficacy. -Enactive mastery - most important source of self efficacy; refers to gaining experience with the task or job. -Vicarious modeling - confidence increases through the success of others (I can do that too); more effective when we see the other person as similar to ourselves -Verbal persuasion - encouragement by others -Arousal - when we are in a state of higher arousal due to some stimulus, we are more likely to be able to increase our self-efficacy (getting psyched up for a task) Implications of Self-Efficacy Theory -Training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having people practice and build their skills. -The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect or the Galatea effect. By simply showing someone that we have high expectations for them, we can increase their self-efficacy (e.g., setting a challenging goal for an employee). -Intelligence and personality are absent from Bandura's list, but they can increase self-efficacy. Intelligence, conscientiousness, and emotional stability are associated with higher self-efficacy Goal-Setting vs. Reinforcement Theory -Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual's purpose directs action. -Reinforcement theory, in contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. -The two theories are clearly at odds philosophically. -Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused, while goal-setting theory places a great deal of evidence on cognition (goal acceptance, commitment) as a mediator of the relationship between the goals and performance. Reinforcement Theory -Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes some action (black-box theory) -In its pure form, reinforcement theory ignores feelings, attitudes, expectations, and other cognitive variables known to affect behavior. -Reinforcement is undoubtedly an important influence on behavior, but few scholars are prepared to argue it is the only one. Operant conditioning theory argues that people learn to behave to get something they want (raise, promotion) or to avoid something they don't want (lose their job). Equity Theory -employees look at what they get from a job to what they put into it compared to referent others. -The referent chosen is key in determining perceptions of equity or inequity. -People are to motivated to reduce perceived inequity, especially if they feel under-rewarded. -Over-reward inequity can result in guilt, but can more easily be rationalized than under-reward inequity. Responses to Inequity -Change inputs - reduce effort (under-reward) or increase effort (over-reward) -Change outcomes - increase sales to increase commission payments -Distort perceptions of self - over-reward; I actually work harder than everyone else -Distort perceptions of others - She actually works harder than most people, including me -Choose a different referent - I'm not doing as well as Person A, but much better than Person B -Leave the situation - quit the job Recent research has expanded beyond distributive justice (comparison of amount of rewards) toward organizational justice (the overall perception of fairness in the workplace ... Procedural justice -focuses on our perceptions of the fairness of organizational methods and how they are enforced/implemented. -In addition to having input into the process and reasonable explanations for outcomes, it is important that a manager is: -Consistent across people and over time -Unbiased in making decisions using accurate information -Open to appeals