Pass the Big ABA Exam-Section 8 Terms UPDATED VERSION

Pass the Big ABA Exam-Section 8 Terms 2 Methods of Conducting a Task Analysis Assessment ans: Single Opportunity & Multiple Opportunity 2 Types of Prompts ans: Response Prompts & Stimulus Prompts 2 Types of Shaping Methods ans: Across and Within Response Topographies 2 Ways to Remove Stimulus Prompts ans: Fading & Shaping 3 Antecedent Interventions ans: Noncontingent Reinforcement, High-Probability Request Sequence and Functional Communication Training 3 Components of Contingency Contracting ans: Behavior, Reward & Data 3 Types of Groups Contingencies ans: Interdependent, Independent & Dependent 4 Behavior Chaining Methods ans: Forward Chaining, Total-Task Chaining, Backward Chaining, and Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead 4 Behaviors that Functionally Define Imitation ans: Formal Similarity, Model, Immediacy, and Controlled Relation. 4 Ways to Remove Response Prompts ans: Most-to-least Prompting, Least-to-Most Prompting, Graduated Guidance, and Delayed Prompting 5 ABA Instructional/Educational Methodologies ans: Discrete Trial Teaching, Incidental Teaching, Direct Instruction, Precision Teaching & Personalized System of Instruction 5 Steps of Imitation Training ans: 1.) Assess & teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training. 2.) Select models for training. 3.) Pretest 4.) Sequence models for training. 5.) Implement imitation training 6 Types of Differential Reinforcement ans: DRH, DRI, DRL, DRO, DRA & DRD Antecedent Control ans: The antecedent is dependent on the consequences of behavior for developing evocative & abative effects. Stimulus Control (Sds)=Contingency Dependent. Changes in response can be achieved by using within or extra stimulus prompts. Example: In the presence of 2+2=?, but because of past reinforcement history of saying 4. Antecedent Intervention ans: The antecedent is NOT dependent on the consequences of behavior for developing evocative & abative effects. The antecedent itself affects behavior-consequence relations. MOs=Contingency Independent. Strategies that alter the MOs by influencing which classes of consequences function effectively as reinforcers. This creates an AOs because they decrease the effectiveness of reinforcers that maintain challenging behavior. Example: Sleep deprivation can influence the occurrences of problem behavior in the absence of a history of pairing sleep deprivation with reinforcement or punishment of those behaviors. Antecedent-Based Self-Management Tactics ans: Primary feature is the manipulation of events of stimuli antecedent to the target (i.e., controlled) behavior. Ways to do this include: Manipulating MOs, Providing Response Prompts, Performing Initial Steps of a Behavior Chain, Removing materials required for an undesired behavior, Limiting Undesired Behavior to Restricted Stimulus Conditions, and Dedicating a Specific Environment for a Behavior Augmentative Communication Systems ans: This is for individuals who cannot communicate using vocal speech, so therefore we should utilize a communication method. We must assess the individual's current repertoire of verbal skills, along with those of his/her audience. Example: Signing, touching, or exchanging a picture. Backward Chaining ans: A procedure in which the trainer completes all the initial steps except for the last step, at which point the individual is taught to complete the last step & once the individual has mastered the last step, then he/she is required to complete the last 2 steps in order to receive reinforcement. This continues until the learner is able to complete all the steps of the task analysis. The first behavior the individual performs independently produces the terminal reinforcement (e.g., the shoe is tied) Backward Chaining with Leap Aheads ans: This is the almost the same as backward chaining, but not every step in the task analysis is trained. Some steps are simply probed. If the step is already in the individual's behavioral repertoire, it does not need to be trained & one can be skipped over that step. The purpose of this is to decrease total training time needed to learn the chain. Behavior Chain ans: A specific sequence of discrete responses, each associated with a particular stimulus condition,where each response & the associated stimulus condition serve as an individual component of the chain. When the components of the are linked together, they produce a terminal outcome. Each response in a this produces a stimulus change that simultaneously serves 2 functions: (a) A conditioned reinforcer for the response that produced it & (b) an Sd for the next response in the chain. An exception to this procedure is about the dual function and that is the first & last response serve as either an Sd or an conditioned reinforcer. Example: Dialing a phone number Behavior Chain with Limited Hold ans: The chain must be performed correctly & within a certain time. Accuracy & rate are essential dimensions to this hold. Example: In a phone number, each digit must be dialed within a certain amount of time after the previous digit. If too much time elapses in between the dialing of the digits, then the phone number will be dialed incorrectly or may not be dialed at all. Benefits of Chaining ans: Increases independent living skills so that individuals can function more independently in society. Elaborates an individual's current behavioral repertoire. Example: Teaching a person with intellectual disabilities the steps of working in an assembly line for employment. Block Trial ans: Giving a 'block' of one Sd followed by a block of another Sd. The target changes one time during the series of trials (i.e., the switch). Breaking Behavior Chains ans: Rules for undoing this is: 1.) Reexamine the Sd & the response 2.) Determine whether similar Sds cue different responses. 3.) Analyze the natural setting to identify relevant & irrelevant Sds. 4.) Determine whether Sds in the natural setting from training Sds. 5.) Identify the presence of novel stimuli Chaining Steps ans: The steps to this procedure includes: 1.) Create & confirm the task analysis 2.) Assess Baseline Level of Mastered Steps 3.) Decide on the behavioral procedures of this to implement. Choral Responding ans: Teachers give the students a signal, which tells them when to participate during a lesson. The topography of the signal can be different (e.g., snapping of fingers, turning off light, etc.). After the signal, students are to vocally respond in unison, like a chorus. Contingency Contract ans: A procedure in which contract is developed collaboratively that stipulates a certain contingency for an individual between a behavior & a reinforcer. The contract itself is a permanent product, as it is a document that can be written or consist of visual stimuli for individuals who cannot read well. These are used in treatment packages. Controlled Relation ans: The model must be the controlling variable for the imitative behavior. The model must serve as the Sd for the imitative behavior. Controlling Response vs. Controlled Response ans: These two terms are almost the same except one is self-management behavior which is the process of the product. The other term is the target behavior one desires to alter; the product. Dedicating a Specific Environment for a Behavior ans: Reserve or create an environment where the person will only engage in that behavior. Example: Studying only in a certain place; or using a specific background on your laptop for work tasks & another background for personal tasks. Delayed Prompting ans: AKA: Delayed Cueing, Progressive Delay). This is a type of response prompt. Inserting time delays between the Sd & the prompt in order to systematically eliminate prompts. Upon successful initial implementation of the delayed prompting strategy, the prompt is no longer even needed for the person, as the person should be responding prior to the prompt. There are 2 forms of this type of prompts. Dependent Group Contingencies ans: The groups reinforcer is dependent on the behavior of an individual or small group of individuals. The goal is to make a hero out the person(s) by ensuring he/she will meet criterion for reinforcement for the entire group. Example: A teacher says, "If Randy is able to finish his math test before the bell rings, then everyone will not have to do homework for the entire week." For the teacher to use this strategy effectively, he/she would need to be sure that Randy could successfully fulfill the criterion. Differential Negative Reinforcement of Incompatible/Alternative Behavior ans: These are terms that are sometimes used to refer to differential reinforcement procedures that specifically involve escape as the reinforcer. Example: W Differential Reinforcement ans: Reinforcing those responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along with dimensions (e.g., frequency, magnitude, etc.) & placing all other responses in the class on extinction. This procedure involves 2 parts: (1) Reinforcement contingent on: (a) The occurrence of a behavior other than the challenging behavior, (b) Challenging behavior occurring at a reduced rate. (2) Withholding Reinforcement (i.e., extinction) for the challenging behavior as much as possible. This is an extremely popular & effective strategy. Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior ans: A procedure in which one reinforces the occurrence of behavior that provides a desirable alternative to the problem behavior; not necessarily behavior incompatible with it. This is part of the same response class as challenging behavior, which means that alternative behavior will result in the same consequence as the challenging behavior & thus will compete successfully because it makes the challenging behavior ineffective. Example: In order to decrease bickering that has been occurring with a small group of co-workers, their very intelligent employer decides to give them a special assignment to work on collaboratively as a the bickering amongst the group decreases as they work together on the special assignment amongst the group decreases as they work together on the special assignment. Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding ans: A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement when the number of responses in specified time period is less than, or equal to, a prescribed limit. This helps decrease behavior that the individual displays too frequently, but not to eliminate it entirely. This is describe in rate/frequency. Example: Dana eats too fast. This schedule could mean she could earn reinforcement after taking only 10 bites of food in 5 minutes. Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding ans: A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for emitting behaviors that are at or above a pre-established rate. This helps to increase behavior that the individual displays too infrequently. Example: You are physically capable of studying for your BCBA exam, but you tend to study very infrequently. So, you decide to use a DRH on your study behavior. You currently study 3 hours per week, but you want to study 7 hours per week, so you set your initial interval for 5 hours per week & once you have accomplished this, you set your next interval for 7 hours per week. You have finally reached your studying goal. Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior ans: A procedure in which behavior cannot be emitted simultaneously with the challenging behavior (i.e.-incompatible). The behavior being deferentially reinforced & behavior on extinction are mutually exclusive response classes. This is a sub-type of DRA. Example: An individual cannot refuse to eat food & eat food at the same time. Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding ans: A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement only if the behavior occurs following a specific period of time during which it did not occur or since the last time it occurred. This uses an IRT which identifies the duration of time that occurs between 2 responses. The longer the IRT, the lover the overall rate of responding. The shorter the IRT, the higher the overall rate responding. By increasing IRT, you lower your rate of responding. This helps to decrease behavior that the individual displays too frequently, but not to eliminate it entirely. Example: Dana eats too fast. This schedule could mean she could earn reinforcement upon taking a bite of food after a 10-second pause. Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior ans: A procedure in which reinforcement is contingent on the absence (i.e., omission) of the challenging behavior. Reinforcers are recieved when challenging behavior has not been displayed during or at certain time periods. Delivery of reinforcement is determined by how the omission requirement is implemented & scheduled. Direct Instruction ans: Siegfried Engelmann founded this instruction. This is a published ABA instructional methodology that involves: (a) A carefully designed curriculum; (b) teaching in small groups; (c) Fast-Paced teaching; (d) Scripts; (e) Signals & Choral Responding; (f) applying specific techniques for correcting & preventing errors. This method believes all children can learn. There is lots of research behind its effectiveness for all ages & economic levels. There is 6 Guiding Principles: (a) Carefully Designed Curriculum (b) Teaching in Small Groups (c) Fast-Paced Teaching (d) Scripts (e) Signals & Choral Responding (f) Applying Specific Techniques for Correcting & Preventing Errors Discrete Trials ans: AKA: Restricted Operant; Controlled Operant. This was founded by Ivar Lovaas in the 1960's. This is a single cycle of behaviorally-based & systematic instructional routine. The 5 components of this is (a) Sd, (b) Prompt, (c) Response, (d) Reinforcement, (e) Inter-Trial Interval Errorless Learning ans: Instructional methods specifically designed to prevent substantially minimize any learner errors that are used to teach particular discriminations. Most-to-least prompting & fading methods are especially suitable for teaching new skills in this method. We remove prompts so gradually that the likelihood for any failure goes away. Example: Sequences of artificial discriminative stimuli are arranged carefully & faded slowly & systematically so that control eventually shifts to the natural stimuli identified ultimately to evoke the response. Factors Affecting the Performance of A Behavior Chain ans: These factors affect the performance: 1.) Completeness of the task analysis 2.) Length or complexity of the chain 3.) Schedule of reinforcement 4.) Stimulus variation 5.) Response variation Fading ans: The systematic & gradual removal of intrusive prompts until the control transfers to the natural stimulus (Sd). This a maximal-to-minimal prompting procedure used to foster independence from supplemental prompts, &/or to shift control to the stimuli designated to evoke the response. Example: In order to teach you how to read the word, "purple," I will write the word, "purple," in the color purple & gradually fade away the color purple. Fixed Delayed Prompting ans: This is a type of Delayed Prompt that involves the time between the Sd & the prompt is fixed (i.e., not changing). Example: Gena implemented this procedure using a fixed time of 5 seconds to teach her child how to make her bed. Each time Gena presented the Sd, the time interval between the Sd & prompt she provided for her child to make the bed was a fixed 5-second interval. Eventually, her child did not require the prompt & Gena removed it. Fixed-Interval DRO ans: This type of DRO is constant or not changeable period of time. An interval of time is established & if the challenging behavior does not occur during that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval. As behavior improves, intervals should increase gradually. Example: On an FI-DRO 11 minute schedule, Brandi is reinforced when she does not scream for fixed-interval of 11 minutes. If she screams any time during the 11 minutes, her interval time is reset. Fixed-Momentary DRO ans: This type of DRO is constant or not changeable period of time. This is done at the end of the interval. An interval of time is established & if the challenging behavior does not occur at the end of that interval, the individual earns reinforcement. Example: On this schedule, Brandi is reinforced when, at the end of a fixed interval of 11 minutes she is not screaming. If she screams any time during the 11 minutes, she can still earn reinforcement, as long as she is not screaming at the end of the interval. Formal Similarity ans: The model & behavior must have formal similarity (i.e., the model & the behavior must physically look alike & be in the same sense mode. Forward Chaining ans: Behaviors identified in this task analysis are taught in their naturally occurring order. Training the first link first, the second link second, the third link third, etc. & joining all the trained links together. Once the first step has been mastered, the learner will be required to complete steps 1 & 2 in order to earn reinforcement. Once the second step has been mastered, the learner will be required complete steps 1, 2, & order to earn reinforcement. This continues until all steps in the task analysis are completed by the individual correctly. At any given training step, a variety of prompting & other strategies may be employed to occasion the response. Full Session DRH ans: Reinforcement is delivered at the end of a session if during the entire session the target behavior occurred at a rate equal to or above the predetermined criterion. Example: Joe is working on increasing the number of spontaneous appropriate comments his client makes. At the end of Joe's 4 hour session with his client, his client has made 17 spontaneous appropriate comments. Functional Communication Training ans: This was developed by Carr & Durand (1985) A strategy that teacher individuals ways to appropriately communicate to compete with challenging behaviors evoked by EOs. This utilizes an individual's EOs strategically & capitalizes on them by teaching the individual replacement behavior for their EOs. This is a great way to execute mand training. This should be utilized in a treatment package. Example: Instead of displaying challenging behavior to attain food because you are hungry, you are taught to point to the food items you desire when hungry (i.e., your EO is in effect). You are immediately reinforced with those food items. Therefore, the challenging behavior you have used to attain food is no longer required since you now know how to point to food when you ant it & are given it. Generalized Imitation ans: When the model is novel & still evokes an imitation. Graduated Guidance ans: This is a type of response prompt. Utilizing the minimal amount of physical prompting required to occasion the correct response & then gradually reducing physical prompts. Example: A behavior analyst is teaching an individual how to tie his/her shoes. The behavior analyst starts by providing full physical prompts for the individual, then gradually & systematically moves his/her hands away from the individual's hands to his/her wrists, elbows, shoulders, until prompting is no longer being provided. Group Contingencies ans: A common consequence is contingent on the behavior of: (1) 1 member of the group, OR (2) Part of the group, OR (3) All individuals in the group. This can save time and it can be more practical to implement than individual contingencies. This takes advantage of the influence of peers. The advantage can easily become a disadvantage if peer pressure is involved. Guidelines for Imitation Training ans: Guidelines for this include: 1.) Keep training sessions active, short (10-15 minutes, couple times a day). 2.) Reinforce both prompted & imitative responses. 3.) Pair verbal praise & attention with tangible reinforcers. 4.) Record Data 5.) Fade out prompts Guidelines for Shaping ans: The guidelines for this involves: 1.) Assess Terminal Behavior & Available Resources 2.) Select the Terminal Behavior 3.) Determine Criterion for Success 4.) Analyze the Response Class 5.) Identify the First Behavior to Reinforce 6.) Eliminate Interfering & Extraneous Stimuli 7.) Proceed in Gradual Stages 8.) Limit the Number of Approximations at Each level 9.) Continue Reinforcement when the Terminal Behavior is Achieved Habit Reversal ans: A form of self-management tactic. A multi-component treatment package for reducing unwanted habits (e.g., fingernail biting) that involves identifying events that precede a target behavior & engaging in competing responses. Skinner referred to this as "doing something else." High-Probability Request Sequence ans: A method designed to increase the probability that a low probability behavior will occur by presenting stimuli known to promote a high probability of responding prior to an activity less likely to be performed. Example: Mina tells her son, "Come give me a hug," "Draw mommy a picture," & "Get your blanket," which are all easy requests for her son. Mina then tells him immediately following these requests, "Make your bed," which is not a favorable request for her son. He makes the bed & she provides praise. Imitation ans: This is defined by 4 behavior-environment relations: a) any physical movement may function as a model for imitation. A model is an antecedent stimulus that evokes the imitative behavior. b) An imitative behavior must immediately follow the presentation of the model (within 3-5 seconds) c)the model and the behavior must have formal similarity d)the model must be the controlling variable for an imitative behavior. Imitation Training ans: The goal of this training is to teach individuals to "do what the model does." Immediacy ans: An imitative behavior must immediately follow the model (within a few seconds). This aspect is critical, or it is not considered imitation. "Imitation may also occur at later times & in the context of everyday life situations, but technically, this is not true imitation. Incidental Teaching ans: AKA: In-Situ Training, Naturalistic Teaching, Non-Intensive Teaching) Embedding learning opportunities in ongoing, everyday activities with a focus on child's interest & initiations. The 6 Guiding Principles include: 1.) Natural Reinforcement 2.) Timing 3.) Train Loosely 4.) Indiscriminable Contingencies 5.) Facilitates Generalization 6.) Language Use/Verbal Skills Independent Group Contingency ans: All members of a group are offered a contingency, but only individuals who meet the contingency earn reinforcement. Example: A teacher says, "Anyone who finishes their math test before the bell rings will not have to do homework for the entire week." Any individual student who meets that criterion earns the reinforcement & any individual student who does not meet that criterion does not earn the reinforcement. Interdependent Group Contingency ans: In order for the group to earn reinforcement, all of the individuals in a group must meet the criterion of the established contingency. The Good Behavior Game is used during this. Example: A teacher says, "If everyone finishes their math test before the bell rings, then everyone will not have any homework for the entire week." The entire group would not earn reinforcement even if only one individual did not meet the criterion. T Interval DRH ans: Reinforcement is delivered at the end of each interval during which the target behavior occurred at a rate equal to or above the predetermined criterion.If the challenging behavior falls short of the predetermined criterion during the interval, the interval is reset & the opportunity for reinforcement is postponed. This is more complicated than its counterpart because it requires continuous monitoring, careful timing, & frequent reinforcement. Interval DRO ans: A sub-type of DRO in which a reinforcer is provided following an interval of time throughout which the challenging behavior did not occur. If the challenging behavior does not occur, the interval is reset. These types of DROs are very effective at decreasing challenging behaviors. This is are more popular than momentary DROs. Least-to-Most Prompting ans: This is a response prompt where prompting begins with minimal cures that systematically & gradually increase in prompt hierarchy level until results in the correct response. Proceed to increasingly intrusive prompts only if the individual needs them. Most effective prompting strategy to utilize when you want to use the fewest artificial prompts necessary. Example: Jason initially provides verbal prompt, then modeling prompts, & finally physical prompts, as needed by the individual. Limiting Undesired Behavior to Restricted Stimulus Conditions ans: Decrease frequency of an undesired behavior by limiting the setting under which the person engages in the behavior. Example: A husband continually sulked when interacting with is wife. The husband was told to limit his sulking behavior to his "sulking stool" which was place in the garage. Manipulating MOs ans: This creates a certain state of motivation that, in turn, increases (or decreases as desired) the subsequent frequency of the target behavior (i.e., controlled behavior). Example: Eating a meal before going grocery shopping (i.e., the controlling behavior) is an AO that decreases the momentary value of ready-to-eat food & results in buying fewer items at the grocery store (i.e., the controlled behavior). Mass Trial ans: Presentation of a single Sd for new material on acquisition. Prompts are normally included if necessary & all trials are reinforced at the beginning of this process. Individuals should receive 80% to 100% accuracy in the phase of this alone & with a neutral distracter before proceeding to the next phases. Massed Practice ans: A form of self-management tactic where it involves oneself to perform an undesired behavior repeatedly. Occasionally this strategy may decrease behavior. Model ans: The stimulus that is presented in an effort to evoke the imitative behavior. Any physical movement may function as this for imitation. Momentary DRO ans: A sub-type of DRO in which a reinforcer is provided following an interval of time only if the challenging behavior is not occurring at the end of that interval. These are very effective at maintaining the decrease of challenging behaviors. Most-to-Least Prompting ans: This is a response prompt that involves beginning with a prompt known to reliably evoke the behavior & gradually proceeding to less intrusive prompts. Example: A behavior analyst initially provides full physical prompts, the modeling prompts, & finally verbal prompts until no prompt is required & the natural stimulus evokes the correct response. Multiple Opportunity Method ans: Evaluates the individual's baseline level of mastery across all behaviors in the task analysis. If a step is performed incorrectly, out of sequence, or the time limit for the step is exceeded, the behavior analyst completes that step for the individual & then prompts the learner to do the next step. Each step performed correctly is scored as a correct response even if individual erred on the previous steps. Total correct responses are scored even though out of sequence. This method takes more time to complete. It provides more information about the steps the individual has mastered or with what exactly he/she needs additional help. Increases the likelihood of learning taking place during the assessment. No one should help the individual with any of the steps. Noncontingent Reinforcement ans: A response-independent (i.e., time-based) schedule of reinforcement. Response Independent means that the client's responses are NOT dependent/contingent on anything. So you would just give the client the reinforcer based on time (e.g., every 10 seconds), not contingent on their behavior. This should be used in a treatment package. This includes providing stimuli with known reinforcing properties. This is on a fixed-time (FT) or variable-time (VT) schedule. This is independent of the individual's behavior. This uses 3 distinct procedures that identify & deliver stimuli with known reinforcing properties: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement & Automatic Reinforcement. Performing Initial Steps of a Behavior Chain ans: Behaving in a manner that ensures being confronted later with an Sd that reliably evokes the target behavior. This involves linking components of behavior. Example: If you know it is going to rain tomorrow & you want to remember to bring your umbrella with you to work, hang the umbrella on your front door knob. Personalized System of Instruction ans: This type of instruction was founded by Fred Keller in 1963. This is an ABA instructional methodology characterized by self-pacing, use of proctors, unit mastery, emphasis on the written word & motivational lectures. This was initially created for college classrooms, but since expanded to other levels (e.g., high schools, etc.). Planned Models ans: Pre-arranged antecedent stimuli that help learners acquire new skills. Precision Teaching ans: This type of teaching was founded by Ogden Lindsley. This is a formal method that emphasizes rate building (i.e., fluency), charting of performance (i.e., Celeration charting), & designing & implementing teaching that reinforces the emission of each specific behavior under all conditions in which it is expected to occur. This is not utilized alone, but with other strategies. Premack Principle ans: A principle that states that making the opportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior (i.e., something that you are more likely to do) contingent upon the occurrence of low-probability (i.e., something you are less likely to do) will function as a reinforcer for the low-probability behavior. Usually stated as a "first ___________, then _________." Progressive Delayed Prompting ans: This is a type of delayed prompting where the time between the Sd & the prompt gradually increases. Example: I am teaching an individual the skill of pointing. I give them the Sd "Point," & start with an initial model prompt. I gradually increase the delay from my Sd of "Point" to my model prompt in 4-second increments starting with zero seconds initially to 60 seconds until the individual meets the criteria that I have established for pointing independently. Prompts ans: Supplementary antecedent stimuli that are introduced to evoke a desired response when the discriminative stimulus is evident. A functional, but irrelevant Sd, such as hint or reminder, designed to set the occasion for a desired response. Example: PASStheBIGABAEXAM Acronyms found in tis study manual are prompts for you to use as mnemonics to memorize ABA material required for your exam. Providing Response Prompts ans: Creating stimuli that later function as extra cues & reminders for desired behavior. Simplest, most widely used self-management technique. Removing Materials Required for an Undesired Behavior ans: Alter the environment so that an undesirable behavior is less likely or impossible to emit. Example: If you want to go on a diet, get rid of all the junk food in your house. Response Differentiation ans: A behavior change produced by differential reinforcement. Reinforced members of the current response class occur with greater frequency & Unreinforced members occur less frequently (because they are on extinction). The overall results of this is: A new response class. Response Prompts ans: These types of prompts act on the response itself, not on the antecedent stimuli. There are 3 forms of this: Verbal (e.g., vocal & non-vocal), Modeling, & Physical Prompting. Response-Deprivation Hypothesis ans: Created by Timberlake & Allison, 1974. Built on the Premack Principle. A model for predicting whether contingent access to one behavior will function as reinforcement for engaging in another behavior based on whether access to the contingent behavior represents a restriction of the activity compared to baseline. Restricting access to the behavior creates deprivation that serves as an EO, which makes the restricted behavior a very strong form of reinforcement. Self-Administered Consequences ans: Providing consequences for self after reviewing self-monitoring data. Choose consequences that are small & easy to attain. Eliminate "bootleg Reinforcement". Self-Directed Systematic Desensitization ans: A form of self-management tactic where you are substituting one behavior (e.g., muscle relaxation) for unwanted behavior (e.g., test anxiety). Self-Evaluation ans: AKA: Self-Assessment. Comparison of an individuals performance by him/herself with a predetermined criterion. Self-Instruction ans: A form of self-management tactic. Self-generated verbal response, cover or overt, that function as response prompts for desired behavior. Often used to guide a person through a behavior chain. Self-Management ans: Employment of behavior analytic interventions to the behavior of oneself. This requires desired change in the behavior. If the desired change is not exhibited, one cannot call it by this name. Example: Before an individual falls asleep at night, he/she sets an alarm clock to wake up on time for his/her job the next morning. Self-Monitoring ans: Procedure in which a person observes his/her own behavior systematically & records occurrence or nonoccurrence of behavior. Originally used for assessment. This is helpful for decreasing smoking, reducing overeating, being on task, etc. Difficult to isolate self-monitoring as a procedure; usually entails other contingencies. This is typically part of the treatment package. Shaping Across Response Topographies ans: The topography of the behavior changes during shaping. Behaviors are still members of the same response class. Example: A speech therapist teaching novel vocalizations to an individual who does not possess any vocal abilities. Shaping ans: A process involving systematically & deferentially reinforcing successive approximations to a terminal behavior. This teaches novel behaviors. Clicker Training is an application of this. Example: A child's volume of voice is extremely loud. The child is provided with reinforcement for emitting lower volumes of his/her voice. As lower volumes of voice are continually provided with reinforcement, the child speaking in a low volume increases & speaking in a loud volume decreases. Shaping Within Response Topographies ans: Topography of behavior remains consistent. Another measurable dimension of behavior is changed (e.g., duration of the behavior). Example: Duration of time spent practicing piano increased via shaping. Single Opportunity Method ans: Assess an individual's ability to perform each behavior in the task analysis in the correct sequence. A (+) or (-) is scored for each correct or incorrect behavior emitted. Once the individual scores a minus, all subsequent steps are also scored (-) & the assessment immediately stops. This is the more conservative method compared to its counterpart. This provides less information to the teacher once instruction is initiated. This is quicker to conduct. Reduces likelihood of learning taking place during assessment Stimulus Prompts ans: These prompts act on the antecedent stimuli, not on the response. They call attention to the stimulus that is in need of help. These can take many forms, but a few forms of stimulus prompts are listed: Movement (e.g., touch, point to, tap, etc.); Position (e.g., one item is placed in closer proximity to the individual than the other items); Redundancy (i.e., the dimensions of the stimulus are paired with the correct response). Successive Approximations ans: The sequence of new response classes that emerge during the shaping process as a result of differential reinforcement. Each successive approximation is closer in form to the terminal behavior than the response class it replaces. Task Analysis ans: This is required to implement chaining procedures. Involves breaking complex skills into smaller, teachable units, the product of which is a series of sequentially ordered steps. Individualized to the person according to age, skill level, disability, & prior experience. Token Economy ans: A contingency package that includes 3 parts (1) Specified list of responses to reinforce (2) The product of this is then used for exhibiting the specified responses (3) Back-up reinforcers that can be purchased with the product of this. Response cost is used as part of this. The product of this is a generalized conditioned reinforcers for the target responses. This is often used as a transition between primary & naturally occurring secondary. Total-Task Chaining ans: A procedure in which every step in the task analysis is taught to the individual during every session. Technically, it is considered a variation of forward chaining. Each step the individual is unable to perform independently is trained until he/she is able to perform all the response in the correct order. If necessary, graduated guidance or physical prompting is used. Unplanned Models ans: This occurs in everyday social interactions. Example: Watching an individual pay to ride the bus & then imitating or copying that behavior. Variable-Interval DRO ans: This type of DRO is changeable period of time (based on average or mean). This is established & if the challenging behavior does not occur during that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval. Example: On this schedule, Brandi is reinforced when she does not scream for 11-minutes. If the 11 minutes is an average taken from the baseline data of Brandi's screaming that indicated she screamed for 15 minutes, 10 minutes & 8 minutes respectively. If Brandi screams any time during this type of DRO, her interval time is reset. Variable-Momentary DRO ans: This type of DRO is changeable period of time (based on average or mean). This is established & if the challenging behavior does not occur during that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval. Example: On this schedule, Brandi is reinforced when she does not scream at the end of the interval of 11-minutes. The 11 minutes is an average taken from Brandi's screaming baseline data that indicated she screamed for 15 minutes, 10 minutes, & 8 minutes respectively. If she screams any time during the variable interval of 11 minutes, she can still earn reinforcement, as long as she is not screaming at the end of the interval.