Pathophysiology Final Exam Study
Guide Modules 1-10
Module
1
Chapter
2
I. General Adaptation Syndrome and Allostasis
a. Alarm Stage: Fight-or-Flight response due to stressful stimuli.
b. Resistance Stage: Nervous & Endocrine systems returning
the body to homeostasis
c. Exhaustion Stage: Point where bofy can no longer return to
homeostasis Chapter 24
II. Body Fluid Homeostasis: Pertains to water within the body and the
particles dissolved in it.
i. Fluid Distribution: Occurs through osmosis, water moves
to higher osmolality, cell membranes permeable to
water, not elec- trolytes.
ii. Extracellular Fluid: OUTSIDE THE CELL
1. 1/3 BODY FLUID IN ADULTS
2. Infants have more extracellular fluid as compared to
intracel- lular
iii. Intracellular Fluid: INSIDE THE CELL
1. 2/3 BODY FLUID IN ADULTS
III. Fluid Imbalances
a. Volume Deficit
i. Etiology: Caused by removal of a sodium-containing fluid
from the body
ii. Clinical Manifestations:Sudden weight loss, postural blood
pres- sure decrease with concurrent increased heart rate,
flat neck veins, lightheadedness, dizziness, syncope,
oliguria, decreased skin tur- got, dryness of oral mucus
, membranes, hard stools, soft sunken eyeballs, lonitudinal
furrows in the tongue
1. INFANTS: fontanel may be sunken, neck veins are
not reli- ably assessed in infants
b. Volume Excess
i. Etiology: Amount of extracellular fluid is abnormally
increased, vascular and intersitial areas have too much
fluid
ii. Clinical Manifestations:
1. Circulatory Overload: Bounding pulse, neck vein
distention in upright position, crackles in dependent
portions of lungs, dyspnea, orthopnea
2. Sudden Weight Gain: A sensitive measure of
extracellular fluid
3. INFANT: Bulging fontanel, assessment of neck
veins is not effective in infants
, 4. Edema
5. ADVANCED: Frothy sputum of pulmonary edema
IV. Body Fluid Concentration
a. Hyponatremia: Serum Sodium conentration below the lower limit
of nor- mal
i. Clinical Manifestations:
1. Mild Central Nervous System Dysfunction:
Malaise, anorexia, nausea, vommiting,
headache
2. Severe Central Nervous System Dysfunction:
Confusion, lethargy, seizures, coma, fatal cerebral
herniation
b. Hypernatremia: Serum sodium concentration above upper limit of
normal
i. Etiology/Causes: Gain of more salt than water, loss of more
water than salt
c. Interstitial Fluid Volume
i. Edema:
V. Electrolyte Imbalances
a. Serum Potassium
i. Hypokalemia: decreased potassium ion concentration in
extracel- lular fluid
1. Etiology:
a. Decreased Intake: Usually in conditions that
cause a decreased oral intake
b. Shift into the cell from extracellular fluid
c. Increased Excretion: Renal, through feces,
Sweat,
GI Tract (Emesis, diarrhea) Diuretics
, ii. Hyperkalemia: Rise of serum potassium levels above 5
MEQ/L
1. Clinical Manifestations:
a. Early, Mild: Intesional Cramping, Diarrhea
b. Late, More severe: Musclue weakness:
(Ascending, beginning in lower extremities)
Cardiac Dysrhythmias, even cardiac arrest
b. Serum Calcium
i. Clinical manifestations:
1. HYPO-
a. Clinical Manifestations:
i. Hyperexcitability of Neuromuscular cells:
possitive trousseau sign, positive
chvostek sign (not reliable in infants),
parethesias, muscle twitching and
cramping, hyperactive reflexes, carpal
spasm, pedal spasm, tetany, laryn-
gospasm, seizures, cardiac dyshythmias
2. HYPER-
Guide Modules 1-10
Module
1
Chapter
2
I. General Adaptation Syndrome and Allostasis
a. Alarm Stage: Fight-or-Flight response due to stressful stimuli.
b. Resistance Stage: Nervous & Endocrine systems returning
the body to homeostasis
c. Exhaustion Stage: Point where bofy can no longer return to
homeostasis Chapter 24
II. Body Fluid Homeostasis: Pertains to water within the body and the
particles dissolved in it.
i. Fluid Distribution: Occurs through osmosis, water moves
to higher osmolality, cell membranes permeable to
water, not elec- trolytes.
ii. Extracellular Fluid: OUTSIDE THE CELL
1. 1/3 BODY FLUID IN ADULTS
2. Infants have more extracellular fluid as compared to
intracel- lular
iii. Intracellular Fluid: INSIDE THE CELL
1. 2/3 BODY FLUID IN ADULTS
III. Fluid Imbalances
a. Volume Deficit
i. Etiology: Caused by removal of a sodium-containing fluid
from the body
ii. Clinical Manifestations:Sudden weight loss, postural blood
pres- sure decrease with concurrent increased heart rate,
flat neck veins, lightheadedness, dizziness, syncope,
oliguria, decreased skin tur- got, dryness of oral mucus
, membranes, hard stools, soft sunken eyeballs, lonitudinal
furrows in the tongue
1. INFANTS: fontanel may be sunken, neck veins are
not reli- ably assessed in infants
b. Volume Excess
i. Etiology: Amount of extracellular fluid is abnormally
increased, vascular and intersitial areas have too much
fluid
ii. Clinical Manifestations:
1. Circulatory Overload: Bounding pulse, neck vein
distention in upright position, crackles in dependent
portions of lungs, dyspnea, orthopnea
2. Sudden Weight Gain: A sensitive measure of
extracellular fluid
3. INFANT: Bulging fontanel, assessment of neck
veins is not effective in infants
, 4. Edema
5. ADVANCED: Frothy sputum of pulmonary edema
IV. Body Fluid Concentration
a. Hyponatremia: Serum Sodium conentration below the lower limit
of nor- mal
i. Clinical Manifestations:
1. Mild Central Nervous System Dysfunction:
Malaise, anorexia, nausea, vommiting,
headache
2. Severe Central Nervous System Dysfunction:
Confusion, lethargy, seizures, coma, fatal cerebral
herniation
b. Hypernatremia: Serum sodium concentration above upper limit of
normal
i. Etiology/Causes: Gain of more salt than water, loss of more
water than salt
c. Interstitial Fluid Volume
i. Edema:
V. Electrolyte Imbalances
a. Serum Potassium
i. Hypokalemia: decreased potassium ion concentration in
extracel- lular fluid
1. Etiology:
a. Decreased Intake: Usually in conditions that
cause a decreased oral intake
b. Shift into the cell from extracellular fluid
c. Increased Excretion: Renal, through feces,
Sweat,
GI Tract (Emesis, diarrhea) Diuretics
, ii. Hyperkalemia: Rise of serum potassium levels above 5
MEQ/L
1. Clinical Manifestations:
a. Early, Mild: Intesional Cramping, Diarrhea
b. Late, More severe: Musclue weakness:
(Ascending, beginning in lower extremities)
Cardiac Dysrhythmias, even cardiac arrest
b. Serum Calcium
i. Clinical manifestations:
1. HYPO-
a. Clinical Manifestations:
i. Hyperexcitability of Neuromuscular cells:
possitive trousseau sign, positive
chvostek sign (not reliable in infants),
parethesias, muscle twitching and
cramping, hyperactive reflexes, carpal
spasm, pedal spasm, tetany, laryn-
gospasm, seizures, cardiac dyshythmias
2. HYPER-
