Theme 1A: Divine Command Theory
Whether morality is what God commands
MORALITY IS THE SAME AS WHAT GOD COMMANDS MORALITY IS NOT WHAT GOD COMMANDS
od’s character guarantees moral goodness
G T he Euthyphro dilemma still applies
Divine Command theory claims moral obligation Socratesasks whether God commands the good
comes from God’s will, not human opinion. because it is good, or whether it is good because God
If God is omnibenevolent, his commands cannot be commands it.
evil or arbitrary. If goodness depends only on God’s command,
Robert Adams’ Modified Divine Command theory morality seems arbitrary.
grounds morality in God’s loving nature. If God commands what is already good, morality is
This avoids “anything goes” morality by rooting independent of God.
goodness in who God is. Julian BagginiarguesAdams’ solution fails because
Morality therefore has an objective foundation. the dilemma can be restated.
This leaves the origin of morality unresolved.
ithout God, morality lacks authority and duty
W orality can exist without God
M
Divine Command theory offers a secure template for Many philosophers argue that morality does not
life rather than leaving humans to invent morality. require a divine source.
It can remove moral responsibility from fallible human Emotivism claims moral statements express feelings
judgement and provide consistency. rather than facts.
It explains why moral “oughts” are binding: they are If morality is humanly constructed, divine commands
owed to God as lawgiver. add little explanation.
This fits the religious belief that humans are Alternative theories (e.g. virtue ethics) ground
accountable to a higher authority. morality in reason and flourishing.
Morality therefore has purpose/accountability This weakens the need for God-based morality.
eligious morality shows coherence because
R S criptural inconsistency undermines divine morality
confusion comes from humans, not God Religions conflict over moral teachings, so they
Many religions share similar moral laws (e.g. cannot all be correct.
prohibitions on murder and theft), suggesting a Even within Christianity, moral disagreement persists.
common moral source. Some biblical commands appear incompatible with
Disagreement can be explained as human goodness.
misinterpretation rather than divine inconsistency. For example,“they are to be put to death”(Leviticus
Divine Command theory fits the idea that morality is 20:13) challenges omnibenevolence.
revealed and humans distort it. This makes it hard to identify morality with divine
This allows God to remain the stable standard while command.
human beings debate its application.
Moral conflict does not disprove a divine moral origin.
, Theme 1A: Divine Command Theory
hether one of Divine Command Theory, Virtue Theory or Ethical Egoism is superior
W
to the other theories
ONE THEORY IS SUPERIOR TO THE OTHERS NO THEORY IS CLEARLY SUPERIOR
CT is the clearest and most authoritative
D CT relies on an unproven assumption
D
Divine Command Theory offers an absolutist and The theory assumes the existence of God, which
universal account of morality grounded in God’s will. cannot be empirically demonstrated.
Moral rules are fixed, clear, and consistent, removing If God does not exist, the moral system collapses.
uncertainty in moral decision-making. Religious disagreement over moral commands
For believers, morality has a binding force because it is undermines its clarity.
owed to God as lawgiver. The Euthyphro dilemma suggests morality may be
This simplicity makes it easy to follow/apply daily. arbitrary or independent of God.
It is therefore superior for those seeking certainty and This weakens its claim to superiority over other
authority in ethics. theories.
irtue Theory promotes moral development
V irtue Theory is too vague to guide action
V
Virtue Theory focuses on character, intentions, and Virtue Theory offers no clear rules for judging specific
becoming a good person rather than rule-following. actions.
It encourages responsibility/moral growth over time. It is difficult to legislate or apply consistently in
This reflectsAristotle’sview that ethics concerns society.
human flourishing (eudaimonia). Different cultures disagree over which virtues matter
It also aligns with Christian emphasis on developing most.
virtues such as love and humility. This makes moral judgement subjective and unclear.
This makes Virtue Theory a deeper and more holistic Its lack of precision limits its practical superiority.
ethical approach.
E thical Egoism reflects human motivation most E thical Egoism undermines morality and social
realistically cooperation
Ethical Egoism recognises self-interest as a central If everyone pursues self-interest, social harmony
motivator in human behaviour. becomes impossible.
It avoids demanding self-sacrifice that may be The theory cannot resolve conflicts between
psychologically unrealistic. competing interests.
Some argue all moral systems ultimately involve If all actions are self-interested, moral praise and
self-interest anyway. blame lose meaning.
This honesty about motivation makes it appealing in It offers no framework for justice or collective
individualistic societies. responsibility.
It may therefore be more practical than idealistic This prevents Ethical Egoism from functioning as a
theories. superior moral theory.
, Theme 1B: Virtue Theory
Whether being a good person is better than just doing good deeds
BEING A GOOD PERSON IS BETTER DOING GOOD DEEDS IS BETTER/EQUAL
haracter matters more than outward action
C T he consequences of actions are what really affect
Good deeds can be performed with selfish or insincere others
motives. It is the effects of moral actions that people must live
Jesus criticises the Pharisees for outward obedience with.
done for praise rather than inner goodness –“inside A good outcome still benefits others even if motives
you are full of hypocrisy.”(Matthew 23:27) are flawed.
A person may obey moral rules while still possessing We would not ask someone to stop a good deed
corrupt intentions. because their motives are imperfect.
Virtue Theory argues that morality concerns who a Moral systems like utilitarianism prioritise results over
personis, not just what theydo. character.
This suggests that being a good person is morally This suggests good deeds are more important than
deeper than merely doing good deeds. inner character.
irtuous character leads naturally to good deeds
V oing good deeds helps develop good character
D
A truly good person will desire to act well without Virtue itself is developed through repeated action and
needing rules. practice.
Develop virtues first, and good actions will follow By performing good deeds, people gradually shape
naturally. (“Every good tree bears good fruit.” their character.
Matthew 7:17) Moral excellence is achieved through action, not
Aristotle argues that moral excellence is formed reflection alone.
through habituation and the practice of virtue. Good deeds are more accessible than abstract virtue
A virtuous person becomes a moral exemplar. development.
This supports the claim that being good is the This suggests actions are the starting point of moral
foundation of doing good. growth.
eing good and doing good are inseparable
B oral goodness requires visible practice
M
A good person will express their character through Goodness must be shown through action to have
good actions. (“By their fruit you will recognise moral value.
them.” Matthew 7:20) Society judges morality through behaviour, not
A person who never does good cannot truly be good. hidden intentions.
Virtue without action is meaningless, and action Someone claiming virtue without action offers no
without virtue is shallow. moral benefit to others.
They are two strands that depend on one another. Doing good deeds is easier to measure and encourage
This suggests neither is better - both are essential for socially.
moral excellence. This supports prioritising deeds over character.
, Theme 1B: Virtue Theory
Whether Virtue Theory is useful when faced with a moral dilemma
ONE THEORY IS SUPERIOR TO THE OTHERS NO THEORY IS CLEARLY SUPERIOR
irtue Theory is adaptable/fits modern complexity
V irtue Theory gives no clear instructions in a
V
It has risen in popularity because it is flexible and dilemma
context-sensitive. It doesn’t tell youexactlywhat to do in a situation.
It works across cultures and times because it focuses Different virtues can pull in different directions (e.g.
on character, not fixed rules. courage vs compassion).
Aristotle’sfocus onphronesis(practical wisdom)helps Without a decision-procedure, people may justify
agents judge what is appropriate in particular opposite actions as “virtuous”.
situations. This can make virtue theory uncertain or confusing
This makes it usable when dilemmas are not “binary”. under pressure.
So it can guide action where rigid rules struggle. So it can feel impractical compared with rule-based.
irtue can underpin good judgement and support
V irtue Theory is hard to legislate or apply socially
V
law-making It is not a legal system and cannot easily organise
We need virtues to shape reasonable and just laws society around “virtue”.
(e.g. justice, temperance). Laws regulate actions, not inner character or
Virtue theory supports the agent developing moral motivations.
skills, not just obeying laws. Because there is no universally agreed list of virtues,
Aquinas’ ethics builds virtues into moral thinking standards may vary widely.
(showing its influence on later traditions). This risks inconsistency: different societies define
The idea of the moral exemplar gives guidance (what “virtue” differently.
would the virtuous person do?). So it’s difficult to use as a public guide in moral
This helps produce stable moral communities, not just dilemmas.
isolated “right acts”.
irtue Theory works best alongside other
V I t can slip into subjectivism or even moral looseness
approaches If there are no fixed standards, critics fear an
Rules can sometimes create more problems, so virtue “anything goes” culture.
can guide when law fails. Virtue theory’s contextual approach can be open to
Virtue is a personal ethic: it trains the agent to interpretation and dispute.
respond well in difficult cases. This may not satisfy those who want certainty,
Developed virtues can give the skills to handle absolutes, and clear boundaries.
challenging decisions consistently. It may also be less appealing to conservative religious
It can draw on wider frameworks (e.g. Natural Law / ethics that prioritise rules.
Christian teaching) while keeping focus on character. So it may fail as a reliable method in serious
So it offers real help, even if not exclusive. dilemmas.
Whether morality is what God commands
MORALITY IS THE SAME AS WHAT GOD COMMANDS MORALITY IS NOT WHAT GOD COMMANDS
od’s character guarantees moral goodness
G T he Euthyphro dilemma still applies
Divine Command theory claims moral obligation Socratesasks whether God commands the good
comes from God’s will, not human opinion. because it is good, or whether it is good because God
If God is omnibenevolent, his commands cannot be commands it.
evil or arbitrary. If goodness depends only on God’s command,
Robert Adams’ Modified Divine Command theory morality seems arbitrary.
grounds morality in God’s loving nature. If God commands what is already good, morality is
This avoids “anything goes” morality by rooting independent of God.
goodness in who God is. Julian BagginiarguesAdams’ solution fails because
Morality therefore has an objective foundation. the dilemma can be restated.
This leaves the origin of morality unresolved.
ithout God, morality lacks authority and duty
W orality can exist without God
M
Divine Command theory offers a secure template for Many philosophers argue that morality does not
life rather than leaving humans to invent morality. require a divine source.
It can remove moral responsibility from fallible human Emotivism claims moral statements express feelings
judgement and provide consistency. rather than facts.
It explains why moral “oughts” are binding: they are If morality is humanly constructed, divine commands
owed to God as lawgiver. add little explanation.
This fits the religious belief that humans are Alternative theories (e.g. virtue ethics) ground
accountable to a higher authority. morality in reason and flourishing.
Morality therefore has purpose/accountability This weakens the need for God-based morality.
eligious morality shows coherence because
R S criptural inconsistency undermines divine morality
confusion comes from humans, not God Religions conflict over moral teachings, so they
Many religions share similar moral laws (e.g. cannot all be correct.
prohibitions on murder and theft), suggesting a Even within Christianity, moral disagreement persists.
common moral source. Some biblical commands appear incompatible with
Disagreement can be explained as human goodness.
misinterpretation rather than divine inconsistency. For example,“they are to be put to death”(Leviticus
Divine Command theory fits the idea that morality is 20:13) challenges omnibenevolence.
revealed and humans distort it. This makes it hard to identify morality with divine
This allows God to remain the stable standard while command.
human beings debate its application.
Moral conflict does not disprove a divine moral origin.
, Theme 1A: Divine Command Theory
hether one of Divine Command Theory, Virtue Theory or Ethical Egoism is superior
W
to the other theories
ONE THEORY IS SUPERIOR TO THE OTHERS NO THEORY IS CLEARLY SUPERIOR
CT is the clearest and most authoritative
D CT relies on an unproven assumption
D
Divine Command Theory offers an absolutist and The theory assumes the existence of God, which
universal account of morality grounded in God’s will. cannot be empirically demonstrated.
Moral rules are fixed, clear, and consistent, removing If God does not exist, the moral system collapses.
uncertainty in moral decision-making. Religious disagreement over moral commands
For believers, morality has a binding force because it is undermines its clarity.
owed to God as lawgiver. The Euthyphro dilemma suggests morality may be
This simplicity makes it easy to follow/apply daily. arbitrary or independent of God.
It is therefore superior for those seeking certainty and This weakens its claim to superiority over other
authority in ethics. theories.
irtue Theory promotes moral development
V irtue Theory is too vague to guide action
V
Virtue Theory focuses on character, intentions, and Virtue Theory offers no clear rules for judging specific
becoming a good person rather than rule-following. actions.
It encourages responsibility/moral growth over time. It is difficult to legislate or apply consistently in
This reflectsAristotle’sview that ethics concerns society.
human flourishing (eudaimonia). Different cultures disagree over which virtues matter
It also aligns with Christian emphasis on developing most.
virtues such as love and humility. This makes moral judgement subjective and unclear.
This makes Virtue Theory a deeper and more holistic Its lack of precision limits its practical superiority.
ethical approach.
E thical Egoism reflects human motivation most E thical Egoism undermines morality and social
realistically cooperation
Ethical Egoism recognises self-interest as a central If everyone pursues self-interest, social harmony
motivator in human behaviour. becomes impossible.
It avoids demanding self-sacrifice that may be The theory cannot resolve conflicts between
psychologically unrealistic. competing interests.
Some argue all moral systems ultimately involve If all actions are self-interested, moral praise and
self-interest anyway. blame lose meaning.
This honesty about motivation makes it appealing in It offers no framework for justice or collective
individualistic societies. responsibility.
It may therefore be more practical than idealistic This prevents Ethical Egoism from functioning as a
theories. superior moral theory.
, Theme 1B: Virtue Theory
Whether being a good person is better than just doing good deeds
BEING A GOOD PERSON IS BETTER DOING GOOD DEEDS IS BETTER/EQUAL
haracter matters more than outward action
C T he consequences of actions are what really affect
Good deeds can be performed with selfish or insincere others
motives. It is the effects of moral actions that people must live
Jesus criticises the Pharisees for outward obedience with.
done for praise rather than inner goodness –“inside A good outcome still benefits others even if motives
you are full of hypocrisy.”(Matthew 23:27) are flawed.
A person may obey moral rules while still possessing We would not ask someone to stop a good deed
corrupt intentions. because their motives are imperfect.
Virtue Theory argues that morality concerns who a Moral systems like utilitarianism prioritise results over
personis, not just what theydo. character.
This suggests that being a good person is morally This suggests good deeds are more important than
deeper than merely doing good deeds. inner character.
irtuous character leads naturally to good deeds
V oing good deeds helps develop good character
D
A truly good person will desire to act well without Virtue itself is developed through repeated action and
needing rules. practice.
Develop virtues first, and good actions will follow By performing good deeds, people gradually shape
naturally. (“Every good tree bears good fruit.” their character.
Matthew 7:17) Moral excellence is achieved through action, not
Aristotle argues that moral excellence is formed reflection alone.
through habituation and the practice of virtue. Good deeds are more accessible than abstract virtue
A virtuous person becomes a moral exemplar. development.
This supports the claim that being good is the This suggests actions are the starting point of moral
foundation of doing good. growth.
eing good and doing good are inseparable
B oral goodness requires visible practice
M
A good person will express their character through Goodness must be shown through action to have
good actions. (“By their fruit you will recognise moral value.
them.” Matthew 7:20) Society judges morality through behaviour, not
A person who never does good cannot truly be good. hidden intentions.
Virtue without action is meaningless, and action Someone claiming virtue without action offers no
without virtue is shallow. moral benefit to others.
They are two strands that depend on one another. Doing good deeds is easier to measure and encourage
This suggests neither is better - both are essential for socially.
moral excellence. This supports prioritising deeds over character.
, Theme 1B: Virtue Theory
Whether Virtue Theory is useful when faced with a moral dilemma
ONE THEORY IS SUPERIOR TO THE OTHERS NO THEORY IS CLEARLY SUPERIOR
irtue Theory is adaptable/fits modern complexity
V irtue Theory gives no clear instructions in a
V
It has risen in popularity because it is flexible and dilemma
context-sensitive. It doesn’t tell youexactlywhat to do in a situation.
It works across cultures and times because it focuses Different virtues can pull in different directions (e.g.
on character, not fixed rules. courage vs compassion).
Aristotle’sfocus onphronesis(practical wisdom)helps Without a decision-procedure, people may justify
agents judge what is appropriate in particular opposite actions as “virtuous”.
situations. This can make virtue theory uncertain or confusing
This makes it usable when dilemmas are not “binary”. under pressure.
So it can guide action where rigid rules struggle. So it can feel impractical compared with rule-based.
irtue can underpin good judgement and support
V irtue Theory is hard to legislate or apply socially
V
law-making It is not a legal system and cannot easily organise
We need virtues to shape reasonable and just laws society around “virtue”.
(e.g. justice, temperance). Laws regulate actions, not inner character or
Virtue theory supports the agent developing moral motivations.
skills, not just obeying laws. Because there is no universally agreed list of virtues,
Aquinas’ ethics builds virtues into moral thinking standards may vary widely.
(showing its influence on later traditions). This risks inconsistency: different societies define
The idea of the moral exemplar gives guidance (what “virtue” differently.
would the virtuous person do?). So it’s difficult to use as a public guide in moral
This helps produce stable moral communities, not just dilemmas.
isolated “right acts”.
irtue Theory works best alongside other
V I t can slip into subjectivism or even moral looseness
approaches If there are no fixed standards, critics fear an
Rules can sometimes create more problems, so virtue “anything goes” culture.
can guide when law fails. Virtue theory’s contextual approach can be open to
Virtue is a personal ethic: it trains the agent to interpretation and dispute.
respond well in difficult cases. This may not satisfy those who want certainty,
Developed virtues can give the skills to handle absolutes, and clear boundaries.
challenging decisions consistently. It may also be less appealing to conservative religious
It can draw on wider frameworks (e.g. Natural Law / ethics that prioritise rules.
Christian teaching) while keeping focus on character. So it may fail as a reliable method in serious
So it offers real help, even if not exclusive. dilemmas.
