DNA: THE CODE OF LIFE ...................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 5
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL ........................................................................................................ 5
DNA ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
HISTORY OF DISCOVERY OF DNA ........................................................................................... 7
DNA REPLICATION ........................................................................................................................... 7
DNA PROFILING ................................................................................................................................ 8
INTERPRETATION OF DNA PROFILES ................................................................................... 8
RNA ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA ............................................................................. 9
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.................................................................................................................10
MUTATIONS DURING PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ..............................................................................11
GENE MUTATIONS .......................................................................................................................11
Meiosis ....................................................................................................................................................13
Introduction......................................................................................................................................13
CHROMOSOMES .........................................................................................................................13
Meiosis - process ...........................................................................................................................14
INTERFACE ...................................................................................................................................14
1
Christené Beukes Life Sciences notes
, FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION ..........................................................................................................15
SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION ..................................................................................................... 16
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS I AND II ........................................................................18
Importance of meiosis..................................................................................................................18
Abnormal meiosis ..........................................................................................................................18
TRISOMY 21 .................................................................................................................................. 19
Mitosis and Meiosis ....................................................................................................................... 19
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS .............................................................. 19
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS............................................................ 20
GENETICS................................................................................................................................................21
Introduction......................................................................................................................................21
MENDEL'S LAW OF DOMINANCE .......................................................................................... 22
Monohybrid crosses ..................................................................................................................... 22
TYPES OF DOMINANCE ............................................................................................................ 22
MENDEL'S LAW OF SEGREGATION ...................................................................................... 23
FORMAT OF GENETIC CROSSINGS ....................................................................................... 23
Blood groups...................................................................................................................................24
Gender determination ................................................................................................................. 25
KARYOTYPES .............................................................................................................................. 26
GENETIC CROSSING FOR SEX DETERMINATION: ............................................................. 26
Sex-linked inheritance ............................................................................................................... 27
GENETIC CROSSING FOR A SEX-LINKED DEVIATION .................................................... 28
Genetic family tree ....................................................................................................................... 29
Dihybrid crosses ............................................................................................................................ 30
MENDEL'S PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENT SORTING ....................................................... 30
DIHYBRID CROSSING EXAMPLE ........................................................................................... 30
Mutations ..........................................................................................................................................31
Genetic manipulation................................................................................................................... 32
2
Christené Beukes Life Sciences notes
, STEM CELL RESEARCH ........................................................................................................... 32
GENETIC ENGINEERED ORGANISMS ................................................................................... 33
CLONING ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Paternity tests................................................................................................................................34
Genetic link ..................................................................................................................................... 35
EVOLUTION ............................................................................................................................................ 36
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 36
HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY ..................................................................................................... 36
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION ......................................................................................................... 37
VARIATION........................................................................................................................................ 38
FACTORS THAT CAUSE VARIATION ..................................................................................... 38
TYPES OF VARIATION ............................................................................................................... 39
ORIGIN OF IDEA OF ORIGIN ......................................................................................................... 39
LAMARQUESM ........................................................................................................................... 39
DARWINISM ................................................................................................................................40
POINTED EQUILIBRIUM .............................................................................................................41
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION ................................................................................................................42
ANIMAL EXAMPLE OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION ................................................................42
PLANT EXAMPLE OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION...................................................................42
FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES ...................................................................................................43
SPECIATION BY GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION....................................................................43
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION .................................................................................................. 44
EVOLUTION TODAY ........................................................................................................................ 44
HUMAN EVOLUTION ............................................................................................................................ 46
EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTRY .......................................................................................... 46
PHYLOGENETIC TREE ............................................................................................................... 46
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HUMANS AND AFRICAN APES .............................................. 47
ANATOMICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AFRICAN MONKEYS AND HUMANS.......... 47
3
Christené Beukes Life Sciences notes
, EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS IN HOMININS .............................................................................. 49
EVIDENCE FOR COMMON PARENTS FOR HOMINID FOSSIL EVIDENCE .................... 49
“OUT OF AFRICA” HYPOTHESIS ..................................................................................................50
EVIDENCE FOR THE “OUT OF AFRICA” HYPOTHESIS ......................................................50
TIMELINE OF THE GENUS HOMO............................................................................................51
Recognitions ........................................................................................................................................ 53
4
Christené Beukes Life Sciences notes
Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 5
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL ........................................................................................................ 5
DNA ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
HISTORY OF DISCOVERY OF DNA ........................................................................................... 7
DNA REPLICATION ........................................................................................................................... 7
DNA PROFILING ................................................................................................................................ 8
INTERPRETATION OF DNA PROFILES ................................................................................... 8
RNA ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA ............................................................................. 9
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.................................................................................................................10
MUTATIONS DURING PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ..............................................................................11
GENE MUTATIONS .......................................................................................................................11
Meiosis ....................................................................................................................................................13
Introduction......................................................................................................................................13
CHROMOSOMES .........................................................................................................................13
Meiosis - process ...........................................................................................................................14
INTERFACE ...................................................................................................................................14
1
Christené Beukes Life Sciences notes
, FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION ..........................................................................................................15
SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION ..................................................................................................... 16
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS I AND II ........................................................................18
Importance of meiosis..................................................................................................................18
Abnormal meiosis ..........................................................................................................................18
TRISOMY 21 .................................................................................................................................. 19
Mitosis and Meiosis ....................................................................................................................... 19
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS .............................................................. 19
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS............................................................ 20
GENETICS................................................................................................................................................21
Introduction......................................................................................................................................21
MENDEL'S LAW OF DOMINANCE .......................................................................................... 22
Monohybrid crosses ..................................................................................................................... 22
TYPES OF DOMINANCE ............................................................................................................ 22
MENDEL'S LAW OF SEGREGATION ...................................................................................... 23
FORMAT OF GENETIC CROSSINGS ....................................................................................... 23
Blood groups...................................................................................................................................24
Gender determination ................................................................................................................. 25
KARYOTYPES .............................................................................................................................. 26
GENETIC CROSSING FOR SEX DETERMINATION: ............................................................. 26
Sex-linked inheritance ............................................................................................................... 27
GENETIC CROSSING FOR A SEX-LINKED DEVIATION .................................................... 28
Genetic family tree ....................................................................................................................... 29
Dihybrid crosses ............................................................................................................................ 30
MENDEL'S PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENT SORTING ....................................................... 30
DIHYBRID CROSSING EXAMPLE ........................................................................................... 30
Mutations ..........................................................................................................................................31
Genetic manipulation................................................................................................................... 32
2
Christené Beukes Life Sciences notes
, STEM CELL RESEARCH ........................................................................................................... 32
GENETIC ENGINEERED ORGANISMS ................................................................................... 33
CLONING ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Paternity tests................................................................................................................................34
Genetic link ..................................................................................................................................... 35
EVOLUTION ............................................................................................................................................ 36
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 36
HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY ..................................................................................................... 36
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION ......................................................................................................... 37
VARIATION........................................................................................................................................ 38
FACTORS THAT CAUSE VARIATION ..................................................................................... 38
TYPES OF VARIATION ............................................................................................................... 39
ORIGIN OF IDEA OF ORIGIN ......................................................................................................... 39
LAMARQUESM ........................................................................................................................... 39
DARWINISM ................................................................................................................................40
POINTED EQUILIBRIUM .............................................................................................................41
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION ................................................................................................................42
ANIMAL EXAMPLE OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION ................................................................42
PLANT EXAMPLE OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION...................................................................42
FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES ...................................................................................................43
SPECIATION BY GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION....................................................................43
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION .................................................................................................. 44
EVOLUTION TODAY ........................................................................................................................ 44
HUMAN EVOLUTION ............................................................................................................................ 46
EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTRY .......................................................................................... 46
PHYLOGENETIC TREE ............................................................................................................... 46
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HUMANS AND AFRICAN APES .............................................. 47
ANATOMICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AFRICAN MONKEYS AND HUMANS.......... 47
3
Christené Beukes Life Sciences notes
, EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS IN HOMININS .............................................................................. 49
EVIDENCE FOR COMMON PARENTS FOR HOMINID FOSSIL EVIDENCE .................... 49
“OUT OF AFRICA” HYPOTHESIS ..................................................................................................50
EVIDENCE FOR THE “OUT OF AFRICA” HYPOTHESIS ......................................................50
TIMELINE OF THE GENUS HOMO............................................................................................51
Recognitions ........................................................................................................................................ 53
4
Christené Beukes Life Sciences notes
