SUBSPECIALIZATIONS
Anatomy structure of body parts PHYSIOLOGY
physiology function of organisms and their Molecular Functions of individual
parts physiology molecules
Ecology interaction of organisms w Neurophysiology Functional properties of nerve
environment cells.
embryology The first eight weeks of Endocrinology Hormones (chemical regulators
development after fertilization in the blood) and how they
of a human egg. control body functions.
Developmental The complete development of Cardiovascular Functions of the heart and blood
biology an individual from fertilization physiology vessels
to death. Immunology The body’s defenses against
Pathology bodily fluids in laboratory such disease-causing agents.
as blood, urine or tissues to Respiratory Functions of the air
diagnose a disease physiology passageways and lungs.
molecular biology subcellular details of animal Renal physiology Functions of the kidneys.
structure and function Exercise Changes in cell and organ
Parasitology animals living in or other physiology functions due to muscular
organisms at the expense of the activity.
host Cell physiology functions of cells. Cornerstone
comparative differences and similarities in of human physiology
anatomy anatomy of organisms Organ physiology physiology of specific organs.
Morphology animal forms and structures and Systemic all aspects of the functioning of
specific structural features physiology specific organ systems
systematics classification of and Pathological the effects of diseases on organ
evolutionary interrelationships physiology functions or system functions.
among animal groups
GROSS ANATOMY- macroscopic anatomy Relationship of ANAPHYSIO
Structures that can be examined without a Anatomical information provides clues about
microscope functions, and physiological mechanisms can be
Surface anatomy the external body. General form explained only in terms of the underlying anatomy.
and superficial markings This is a very important concept: All specific
regional anatomy specific regions of the body. functions are performed by specific structures.
Anatomical organization of
specific areas of the bidy Inspection—simply looking at the body’s
systemic anatomy Structure of specific organ appearance, as in performing a physical
systems examination or making a clinical diagnosis from
developmental changes in form that occur surface appearance.
anatomy between conception and Palpation means feeling a structure with the hands,
physical maturity such as palpating a swollen lymph node or taking a
Pathological Structural changes (gross to pulse.
anatomy microscopic) associated with Auscultation is listening to the natural sounds made
disease by the body, such as heart and lung sounds.
clinical anatomy subspecialties important in Percussion, the examiner taps on the body, feels for
clinical practice such as abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted
pathological anatomy, sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of
radiographic anatomy, and fluid, air, or scar tissue.
surgical anatomy Dissection—carefully cutting and separating tissues
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY to reveal their relationships.
Cytology Cells
Histology Tissues
, exploratory surgery has now been replaced by compiled volumes on zoology
medical imaging techniques—methods of viewing
the inside of the body without surgery
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Claudius Galen
Early (prerecorded history): "Shamans" were the dissected lot of specimens farm animals monkeys
persons with knowledge of body functions, the use and other mammals, wrongly applied to human
of herbs, etc. body though
"Healers" traditionally have three necessary blood movement, process by blood moves
qualities: mental disorder, four imbalances of bodily
1. Knowledge humors: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm
2. Authority father of anatomy
3. Connection with the supernatural first to use experimentation to derive info about the
systems of the body.
Babylon Referred to as the founder of experimental
First recorded evidence of medicine as a physiology
profession.
Code of Hammurabi contained rules related to Chinese Medicine
medicine and malpractice. Chinese medicine, like Greek-Hippocratic tradition,
Wide use of herbs/drugs, e.g., opium. stressed balance (Taoist philosophy) and was
Beer was believed to be good for the heart and primarily noninvasive (pulse reading, observational,
liver. questioning of patient).
Health is maintained when there is a balance
Ancient Egypt between "yin" (female or the shaded aspect, the
High degree of medical knowledge as evidenced earth, darkness, the moon, and passivity) and
by numerous medical papyri. "yang" (male, light, sun, heaven, the active principle
Circumcision: Earliest record of circumcision: rite of in nature).
passage for boys. There are five "Elements" in traditional Chinese
medicine: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water --
Ancient Greeks water and metal are associated with yin, wood and
fire areassociated with yang, while earth belongs to
Hippocrates both yin and yang because it assists both
father of medicine
hippocratic code taken by med practitioners of Middle Ages
approx 70, only 6 was written by him "Folk medicine" was dominant. Greek and Roman
one of the first scholars that stressed the notion teachings were lost.
that diseases have natural, environmental Some women figures of note: Metradora, Trotula,
considerations and Hildegard of Bingen.
observational medicine that’s focused on patient Metrodora and Hildegard both compiled catalogs
and patients environment of diseases and treatments.
proposed that environmental conditions that Hildegard's medical and mystical writings often
influence disease overlapped.
Hippocrates coined the theory of four humors?
Islam
Aristotle Arab Moslems and Arabian Jews (e.g., Treatise on
father of biology and zoology Hygiene by Rabbi Moses Maimonides or Moshe ben
first philo to have attempted to classify animals Maimon), however, had well developed medical
based on forms and structure and habitats practices, many adapted from Greek and Roman
teachings.
Pliny the Elder First "medical school" in Europe in 9th Century was
Historia naturalis-book on natural history but little staffed by many Moslem and Jewish physicians.
more than collection of folklore superstition and Arabia preserved many Greek and Roman texts and
myths reintroduced these texts to Europe. Rhazes (Al-Razi)
, and Avicenna (lbn-Sina) were key figures in Islamic modern anatomy, dissect human cadavers
medicine. father of [modern] anatomy
established principles of comparative anatomy
Many Asian and New World Indian cultures had a Carolus Linnaeus
more advanced knowledge of medicine than published systema naturae, devised the binomial
Europeans at this time. Asian Indians recognized system of nomenclature used in species
diabetes and knew that diet could affect it; early established taxonomy as discipline
accounts of "vaccination" (variolation, actually). differentiate mammals
New World Medicine before Columbus Comte Georges Leclerc de Buffon
New World Indians indirectly introduced curare, author of one of the earliest global hsitory of biolgy
quinine, ipecac, and scurvy treatment to Historia Naturale, 36 vliume prodcutions
Europeans. provided the first naturalistic accent of earth
Aztecs had detailed knowledge of anatomy, including mechanical blahblha
especially the heart, from human sacrifices. earth was abt 75000 yrs old and humans were
newcomers
Jean Fernel
who first introduced the term “physiology,” from Georges Cuvier
Ancient Greek, meaning “study of nature, origins.” four basic body plans: vertebrata articulata
Fernel was also the first to describe the spinal canal mollusca and radiata
(the space in the spine where the spinal cord passes cuverian system of classification proposed for body
through). He has a crater on the moon named after plans
him for his efforts – it is called Fernelius.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
William Harvey used microscope, observed "cells"
corrected galens assumptions and "animalcules."
blood circulation, anatomical essay on motion of First report of spermatozoa, blood cells, and
heart and blood in animals striations in muscle.
arteries and veins form complete circuit, starts from
heart and leads back to heart Rene Descartes
heart pumps blood, daily output of fresh blood is philosopher/scientist. Split mind and body.
more than 7 pounds Attributed bodily functions to mechanistic analysis.
prior this it is believed that liver produced the blood Early model of involuntary reflex.
Thought pineal gland was the site of the soul, or
St Albertus Magnus anatomical interface between "spirits" within body.
denied many superstitions in zoology and Basically he had a hydraulic view of the body
reintroduced aristotles works nerves were hollow tubes that conducted spirits --
patron saint of natural science spirits inflated muscles.
information about nature should be collected by
actially observing aspects of nature Edward Jenner
small pox vaccination developed from cowpox.
Leonardo da Vinci Eventually vaccination supplanted "variolation"
field on anatomy paintings (using extracts from small pox sores for inoculation)
studying comparative anatomy of diff animals and which had been used in Europe and Asia for
their symmetry centuries.
dissections of cadavers and comparative anatomy Lady Montagu reported on use of variolation (often
of mammals and humans and documented thru incorrectly reported as vaccination) in Turkey, but
drawings, did accruate measurements in the model the practice never caught on with the upper classes
of body in England.
taxonomy and systematics, studies anatomy
19th Century:
Andreas Vesalius
, Growth of scientific method in anatomy, physiology,
and medicine. August Krogh, 1910
Rober Koch won the Nobel Prize for discovering how blood flow
Germ theory of disease. Advances in microscopy, is regulated in capillaries.
staining techniques.
Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin, 1952
Louis Pasteur discovered the ionic mechanism by which nerve
contributed to "germ theory of disease." impulses are transmitted.
Galvani and Volta Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, 1954
electrical nature of muscle and nerve function. made advances in the study of muscles with the
discovery of sliding filaments in skeletal muscle
Robert Hooke
first observation of cells CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
invented crude microscope 1635 used to pave Organization
noted tiny boxes in cells looked like tissues Cellular composition
failed to comprehend their significance Metabolism
Responsiveness and movement
Mattias Jakob Shleiden Homeostasis
plant tissues are made of cells Development
Theodor Schwann Reproduction
animal tissues are made up of cells, CELL THEORY w Evolution
shleiden
cell is common structure of all living things BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
1. Metabolism
Karl Ernst von Baer 2. Responsiveness
founded embryology 3. Movement
4. Growth
Claude Bernard 5. Differentiation
father of experimental medicine 6. Reproduction
the study of animal physiology
study on concept of homeostasis Viruses are often considered "non-living" since their
reproduction can only occur with cells, but they are
Charles Darwin made of protein and have DNA or RNA.
studied theory of evolution by means of natural
selection 22-27 yrs old SURVIVAL NEEDS
explore coasts Nutrients
Oxygen
Gregor Mendel Water
first to formulate particulate hereditary factors or Normal body temperature
genes Appropriate atmospheric pressure
became basis of modern hereditary
cultivated plants to particulate relativity factors or GRADES OF ORGANIZATION IN ORGANISMAL
genes, based on a plant specimen, became the basis COMPLEXITY
of heredity levels in which cells are arranged
1. protoplasmic grade of organization-characterizes
Joseph Lister, 1858 unicellular, all life functions are confined within
initially studied coagulation boundaries of single cell. Within a cell, protoplasm
and inflammation following injury, he went on to is differentiated into organelles
discover and utilize lifesaving antiseptics. 2. cellular grade- aggregation of cells that are
functionally differentiated. Theres division of labor
Ivan Pavlov, 1891
conditioned physiological responses in dogs.
Anatomy structure of body parts PHYSIOLOGY
physiology function of organisms and their Molecular Functions of individual
parts physiology molecules
Ecology interaction of organisms w Neurophysiology Functional properties of nerve
environment cells.
embryology The first eight weeks of Endocrinology Hormones (chemical regulators
development after fertilization in the blood) and how they
of a human egg. control body functions.
Developmental The complete development of Cardiovascular Functions of the heart and blood
biology an individual from fertilization physiology vessels
to death. Immunology The body’s defenses against
Pathology bodily fluids in laboratory such disease-causing agents.
as blood, urine or tissues to Respiratory Functions of the air
diagnose a disease physiology passageways and lungs.
molecular biology subcellular details of animal Renal physiology Functions of the kidneys.
structure and function Exercise Changes in cell and organ
Parasitology animals living in or other physiology functions due to muscular
organisms at the expense of the activity.
host Cell physiology functions of cells. Cornerstone
comparative differences and similarities in of human physiology
anatomy anatomy of organisms Organ physiology physiology of specific organs.
Morphology animal forms and structures and Systemic all aspects of the functioning of
specific structural features physiology specific organ systems
systematics classification of and Pathological the effects of diseases on organ
evolutionary interrelationships physiology functions or system functions.
among animal groups
GROSS ANATOMY- macroscopic anatomy Relationship of ANAPHYSIO
Structures that can be examined without a Anatomical information provides clues about
microscope functions, and physiological mechanisms can be
Surface anatomy the external body. General form explained only in terms of the underlying anatomy.
and superficial markings This is a very important concept: All specific
regional anatomy specific regions of the body. functions are performed by specific structures.
Anatomical organization of
specific areas of the bidy Inspection—simply looking at the body’s
systemic anatomy Structure of specific organ appearance, as in performing a physical
systems examination or making a clinical diagnosis from
developmental changes in form that occur surface appearance.
anatomy between conception and Palpation means feeling a structure with the hands,
physical maturity such as palpating a swollen lymph node or taking a
Pathological Structural changes (gross to pulse.
anatomy microscopic) associated with Auscultation is listening to the natural sounds made
disease by the body, such as heart and lung sounds.
clinical anatomy subspecialties important in Percussion, the examiner taps on the body, feels for
clinical practice such as abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted
pathological anatomy, sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of
radiographic anatomy, and fluid, air, or scar tissue.
surgical anatomy Dissection—carefully cutting and separating tissues
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY to reveal their relationships.
Cytology Cells
Histology Tissues
, exploratory surgery has now been replaced by compiled volumes on zoology
medical imaging techniques—methods of viewing
the inside of the body without surgery
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Claudius Galen
Early (prerecorded history): "Shamans" were the dissected lot of specimens farm animals monkeys
persons with knowledge of body functions, the use and other mammals, wrongly applied to human
of herbs, etc. body though
"Healers" traditionally have three necessary blood movement, process by blood moves
qualities: mental disorder, four imbalances of bodily
1. Knowledge humors: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm
2. Authority father of anatomy
3. Connection with the supernatural first to use experimentation to derive info about the
systems of the body.
Babylon Referred to as the founder of experimental
First recorded evidence of medicine as a physiology
profession.
Code of Hammurabi contained rules related to Chinese Medicine
medicine and malpractice. Chinese medicine, like Greek-Hippocratic tradition,
Wide use of herbs/drugs, e.g., opium. stressed balance (Taoist philosophy) and was
Beer was believed to be good for the heart and primarily noninvasive (pulse reading, observational,
liver. questioning of patient).
Health is maintained when there is a balance
Ancient Egypt between "yin" (female or the shaded aspect, the
High degree of medical knowledge as evidenced earth, darkness, the moon, and passivity) and
by numerous medical papyri. "yang" (male, light, sun, heaven, the active principle
Circumcision: Earliest record of circumcision: rite of in nature).
passage for boys. There are five "Elements" in traditional Chinese
medicine: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water --
Ancient Greeks water and metal are associated with yin, wood and
fire areassociated with yang, while earth belongs to
Hippocrates both yin and yang because it assists both
father of medicine
hippocratic code taken by med practitioners of Middle Ages
approx 70, only 6 was written by him "Folk medicine" was dominant. Greek and Roman
one of the first scholars that stressed the notion teachings were lost.
that diseases have natural, environmental Some women figures of note: Metradora, Trotula,
considerations and Hildegard of Bingen.
observational medicine that’s focused on patient Metrodora and Hildegard both compiled catalogs
and patients environment of diseases and treatments.
proposed that environmental conditions that Hildegard's medical and mystical writings often
influence disease overlapped.
Hippocrates coined the theory of four humors?
Islam
Aristotle Arab Moslems and Arabian Jews (e.g., Treatise on
father of biology and zoology Hygiene by Rabbi Moses Maimonides or Moshe ben
first philo to have attempted to classify animals Maimon), however, had well developed medical
based on forms and structure and habitats practices, many adapted from Greek and Roman
teachings.
Pliny the Elder First "medical school" in Europe in 9th Century was
Historia naturalis-book on natural history but little staffed by many Moslem and Jewish physicians.
more than collection of folklore superstition and Arabia preserved many Greek and Roman texts and
myths reintroduced these texts to Europe. Rhazes (Al-Razi)
, and Avicenna (lbn-Sina) were key figures in Islamic modern anatomy, dissect human cadavers
medicine. father of [modern] anatomy
established principles of comparative anatomy
Many Asian and New World Indian cultures had a Carolus Linnaeus
more advanced knowledge of medicine than published systema naturae, devised the binomial
Europeans at this time. Asian Indians recognized system of nomenclature used in species
diabetes and knew that diet could affect it; early established taxonomy as discipline
accounts of "vaccination" (variolation, actually). differentiate mammals
New World Medicine before Columbus Comte Georges Leclerc de Buffon
New World Indians indirectly introduced curare, author of one of the earliest global hsitory of biolgy
quinine, ipecac, and scurvy treatment to Historia Naturale, 36 vliume prodcutions
Europeans. provided the first naturalistic accent of earth
Aztecs had detailed knowledge of anatomy, including mechanical blahblha
especially the heart, from human sacrifices. earth was abt 75000 yrs old and humans were
newcomers
Jean Fernel
who first introduced the term “physiology,” from Georges Cuvier
Ancient Greek, meaning “study of nature, origins.” four basic body plans: vertebrata articulata
Fernel was also the first to describe the spinal canal mollusca and radiata
(the space in the spine where the spinal cord passes cuverian system of classification proposed for body
through). He has a crater on the moon named after plans
him for his efforts – it is called Fernelius.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
William Harvey used microscope, observed "cells"
corrected galens assumptions and "animalcules."
blood circulation, anatomical essay on motion of First report of spermatozoa, blood cells, and
heart and blood in animals striations in muscle.
arteries and veins form complete circuit, starts from
heart and leads back to heart Rene Descartes
heart pumps blood, daily output of fresh blood is philosopher/scientist. Split mind and body.
more than 7 pounds Attributed bodily functions to mechanistic analysis.
prior this it is believed that liver produced the blood Early model of involuntary reflex.
Thought pineal gland was the site of the soul, or
St Albertus Magnus anatomical interface between "spirits" within body.
denied many superstitions in zoology and Basically he had a hydraulic view of the body
reintroduced aristotles works nerves were hollow tubes that conducted spirits --
patron saint of natural science spirits inflated muscles.
information about nature should be collected by
actially observing aspects of nature Edward Jenner
small pox vaccination developed from cowpox.
Leonardo da Vinci Eventually vaccination supplanted "variolation"
field on anatomy paintings (using extracts from small pox sores for inoculation)
studying comparative anatomy of diff animals and which had been used in Europe and Asia for
their symmetry centuries.
dissections of cadavers and comparative anatomy Lady Montagu reported on use of variolation (often
of mammals and humans and documented thru incorrectly reported as vaccination) in Turkey, but
drawings, did accruate measurements in the model the practice never caught on with the upper classes
of body in England.
taxonomy and systematics, studies anatomy
19th Century:
Andreas Vesalius
, Growth of scientific method in anatomy, physiology,
and medicine. August Krogh, 1910
Rober Koch won the Nobel Prize for discovering how blood flow
Germ theory of disease. Advances in microscopy, is regulated in capillaries.
staining techniques.
Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin, 1952
Louis Pasteur discovered the ionic mechanism by which nerve
contributed to "germ theory of disease." impulses are transmitted.
Galvani and Volta Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, 1954
electrical nature of muscle and nerve function. made advances in the study of muscles with the
discovery of sliding filaments in skeletal muscle
Robert Hooke
first observation of cells CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
invented crude microscope 1635 used to pave Organization
noted tiny boxes in cells looked like tissues Cellular composition
failed to comprehend their significance Metabolism
Responsiveness and movement
Mattias Jakob Shleiden Homeostasis
plant tissues are made of cells Development
Theodor Schwann Reproduction
animal tissues are made up of cells, CELL THEORY w Evolution
shleiden
cell is common structure of all living things BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
1. Metabolism
Karl Ernst von Baer 2. Responsiveness
founded embryology 3. Movement
4. Growth
Claude Bernard 5. Differentiation
father of experimental medicine 6. Reproduction
the study of animal physiology
study on concept of homeostasis Viruses are often considered "non-living" since their
reproduction can only occur with cells, but they are
Charles Darwin made of protein and have DNA or RNA.
studied theory of evolution by means of natural
selection 22-27 yrs old SURVIVAL NEEDS
explore coasts Nutrients
Oxygen
Gregor Mendel Water
first to formulate particulate hereditary factors or Normal body temperature
genes Appropriate atmospheric pressure
became basis of modern hereditary
cultivated plants to particulate relativity factors or GRADES OF ORGANIZATION IN ORGANISMAL
genes, based on a plant specimen, became the basis COMPLEXITY
of heredity levels in which cells are arranged
1. protoplasmic grade of organization-characterizes
Joseph Lister, 1858 unicellular, all life functions are confined within
initially studied coagulation boundaries of single cell. Within a cell, protoplasm
and inflammation following injury, he went on to is differentiated into organelles
discover and utilize lifesaving antiseptics. 2. cellular grade- aggregation of cells that are
functionally differentiated. Theres division of labor
Ivan Pavlov, 1891
conditioned physiological responses in dogs.
