Chapter 1
Basic Concepts and Methods
Chapter Module Outline
1.1 An Introduction to Human Development 1.3 Research Methods
1.2 Key Issues in the Study of Human 1.4 Research Designs
Development
The last time you saw a relative or friend whom you hadn’t age. I guess they have good genes.” As these observations
seen for a while, perhaps you remarked on how much or suggest, human development is a complex phenomenon.
how little the person had changed. About a child, you may To understand it, we developmentalists must examine
have said: “Sally’s grown so much since the last time I saw many variables and the relations among them.
her.” About an older person: “Uncle Julio looks much more In this introductory chapter, you will learn how the
frail than he did at Grandpa’s birthday party.” Such com- science of human development came into being. You will
ments suggest that we humans are natural observers of the also learn about the key issues in the scientific study of
ways in which we change with age. But we also notice development. When you finish reading the chapter, you
characteristics that seem to stay the same over time. We will be acquainted with the research designs and methods
might say, “Sally’s always been such a sweet child,” or that developmentalists use.
“Uncle Julio’s mind is as sharp as ever.” And our powers of
observation don’t stop with simple descriptions. We also
come up with theories to explain our observations. Perhaps
you’ve said something like, “Sally’s parents are great role
1.1: An Introduction to
models. That’s probably why she’s so well behaved,” or
“Grandpa and Uncle Julio are both pretty sharp for their
Human Development
Copyright © 2019. Pearson Education, Limited. All rights reserved.
The field of human development is the scientific study of
age-related changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and
personality. Long before the scientific method was used
to study development, though, philosophers offered
explanations for differences they observed in individu-
als of different ages. In the 19th century, the scientific
methods used by early pioneers in the study of human
behavior were applied to questions about age-related
change. Nevertheless, the term development was largely
confined to childhood during the early years. However,
in the second half of the 20th century, behavioral scien-
tists began to acknowledge that important age-related
changes occur across the entire human lifespan. Their
efforts led to useful ways of categorizing important
The unique developmental pathway that each person follows results
from the person’s own characteristics, the choices that others make
issues in the study of development and revealed a wealth
for him in childhood, and the decisions that he makes for himself in of data suggesting that human development is a highly
adulthood. complex process.
17
Boyd, Denise, and Helen Bee. Lifespan Development, Global Edition, Pearson Education, Limited, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/hkied-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5843856.
Created from hkied-ebooks on 2025-01-16 03:56:06.
, 18 Chapter 1
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
1.1.1 Recall the ideas about human development
proposed by early philosophers and scientists
1.1.2 Describe how the lifespan perspective tries to
fully explain human development
1.1.3 Identify the categories used by developmental
scientists to organize the study of human
development
1.1.1: Philosophical and Scientific
Roots
OBJECTIVE: Recall the ideas about human
development proposed by early
philosophers and scientists known as empiricism when he claimed that the mind of a
child is a blank slate. Empiricism is the view that humans
Early philosophers based their ideas about development possess no innate tendencies and that all differences among
on spiritual authorities, general philosophical orientations, humans are attributable to experience. The blank-slate view
and deductive logic. In the 19th century, though, people suggests that adults can mold children into whatever they
who wanted to better understand human development want them to be. Therefore, differences among adults can be
turned to science. explained in terms of differences in their childhood environ-
ORIGINAL SIN, THE BLANK SLATE, AND INNATE
ments rather than as a result of a struggle to overcome any
GOODNESS Philosophers’ inquiries into the nature of
kind of inborn tendencies, as the original-sin view proposed.
development focused on why babies, who appear to be quite Innate goodness—Different still was the innate goodness
similar, grow up to vary widely. They were particularly con- view proposed by 18th-century Swiss philosopher Jean-
cerned with the moral dimensions of development. Jacques Rousseau. He claimed that all human beings are
naturally good and seek out experiences that help them
Early Philosophers’ Views of Development grow (Newman & Newman, 2016). Rousseau believed that
Three approaches to human development have influenced philoso- children need only nurturing and protection to reach their
phers’ debates about developmental outcomes. These perspectives
differ in their emphasis on internal factors, such as inborn tendencies,
full potential. Developmental outcomes are good when a
and external influences, such as parenting. child’s environment refrains from interfering in her
attempts to nurture her own development. In contrast, out-
Original sin—The Christian doctrine of original sin, often comes are poor when a child experiences frustration in her
attributed to 4th-century philosopher Augustine of Hippo, efforts to express the innate goodness with which she was
taught that all humans are born with a selfish nature. To born. Thus, the innate-goodness and original-sin
Copyright © 2019. Pearson Education, Limited. All rights reserved.
reduce the influence of this inborn tendency toward self- approaches share the view that development involves a
ishness, Augustine taught, humans must seek spiritual struggle between internal and external forces. In contrast
rebirth and submit themselves to religious training. Thus, to both, the blank-slate view sees the child as a passive
from this perspective, developmental outcomes, both good recipient of environmental influences.
and bad, result from each individual’s struggle to over-
come an inborn tendency to act immorally when doing so EARLY SCIENTIFIC THEORIES The 19th century saw an
somehow benefits the self. explosion of interest in how scientific methods might be
The following page from the Hoenshel’s Complete Gram- applied to questions that previously had been thought to
mar, published in 1895, illustrates the influence of the doc- belong within the domain of philosophy.
trine of original sin on education and child rearing.
Statements that promote religious and moral principles are Early Scientific Studies and Theories of Development
embedded in this exercise on verbs. The idea was that the In the 19th century, scientific methods were being used to study all
goals of teaching grammar to children and shaping their kinds of phenomena, including human development.
spiritual development could be, and should be, accom-
Charles Darwin—Charles Darwin proposed that studying
plished simultaneously.
children’s development might help scientists better under-
The blank slate—By contrast, 17th-century English philoso- stand the evolution of the human species. To that end, Dar-
pher John Locke drew on a broad philosophical approach win and other like-minded scientists kept detailed records
Boyd, Denise, and Helen Bee. Lifespan Development, Global Edition, Pearson Education, Limited, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/hkied-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5843856.
Created from hkied-ebooks on 2025-01-16 03:56:06.
, Basic Concepts and Methods 19
children’s behavior. His findings became the basis for
many norm-referenced tests that are used today to determine
whether individual children are developing at a rate that is
similar to that of other children of the same age. Such tests
help early educators find ways of helping young children
whose development lags behind that of others.
1.1.2: The Lifespan Perspective
OBJECTIVE: Describe how the lifespan perspective
tries to fully explain human development
Psychologists once thought of adulthood as a long period
of stability followed by a short span of unstable years
immediately preceding death. This view has changed
because, for one thing, it has become common for adults to
go through major life changes, such as divorce and career
shifts. There has also been a significant increase in life
expectancy in the industrialized world. At the beginning of
the 20th century, Americans’ life expectancy at birth was
only 49 years. By the century’s end, the expected lifespan of
someone born in the United States was about 76 years. As a
Charles Darwin, who fathered 10 children, initiated the scientific
result, older adults now constitute a larger proportion of
study of childhood. He used the same scientific methods that led to
the discoveries on which he based his theory of evolution to make the U.S. population than ever before. In fact, adults over
and record daily observations of his children’s development. the age of 100 are one of the most rapidly growing age
groups in the industrialized world. These changes have led
of their own children’s early development (called baby to the adoption of the lifespan perspective, the idea that
biographies), in the hope of finding evidence to support the important changes occur during every period of develop-
theory of evolution (Dewsbury, 2009). These were the first ment and that these changes must be interpreted in terms
organized studies of human development. of the culture and context in which they occur (Baltes,
Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980).
G. Stanley Hall—G. Stanley Hall of Clark University used
questionnaires and interviews to study large numbers of chil-
Key Elements of the Lifespan Perspective
dren. His 1891 article “The Contents of Children’s Minds on
Understanding change in adulthood has become just as important as
Entering School” represented the first scientific study of child
understanding change in childhood, and input from many disciplines
development (White, 1992). Hall agreed with Darwin that the is necessary to fully explain human development. This new perspec-
milestones of childhood were similar to those that had taken tive emphasizes several key elements.
Copyright © 2019. Pearson Education, Limited. All rights reserved.
place in the development of the human species. He thought
that developmentalists should identify norms, or average ages Plasticity—Individuals of all ages possess the capacity for
at which developmental milestones are reached. Norms, Hall positive change in response to environmental demands.
said, could be used to learn about the evolution of the species Interdisciplinary research—Research from different kinds
as well as to track the development of individual children. of disciplinary perspectives (e.g., anthropology, economics,
Arnold Gesell—Arnold Gesell’s research suggested the psychology) is needed to fully understand lifespan devel-
existence of a genetically programmed sequential pattern opment.
of change (Gesell, 1925; Thelen & Adolph, 1992). Gesell Multicontextual nature of development—Individual
used the term maturation to describe such a pattern of development occurs within several interrelated contexts
change. He thought that maturationally determined devel- (e.g., family, neighborhood, culture).
opment occurred, regardless of practice, training, or effort
(Newman & Newman, 2016). For example, infants don’t Paul Baltes (1939–2006) was a leader in the develop-
have to be taught how to walk. Because of his strong belief ment of a comprehensive theory of lifespan human devel-
that many important developmental changes are deter- opment (Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999; Lerner,
mined by maturation, Gesell spent decades studying chil- 2008). Baltes emphasized the positive aspects of advanced
dren and developing norms. He pioneered the use of age. He pointed out that, as human beings age, they adopt
movie cameras and one-way observation devices to study strategies that help them maximize gains and compensate
Boyd, Denise, and Helen Bee. Lifespan Development, Global Edition, Pearson Education, Limited, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/hkied-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5843856.
Created from hkied-ebooks on 2025-01-16 03:56:06.
Basic Concepts and Methods
Chapter Module Outline
1.1 An Introduction to Human Development 1.3 Research Methods
1.2 Key Issues in the Study of Human 1.4 Research Designs
Development
The last time you saw a relative or friend whom you hadn’t age. I guess they have good genes.” As these observations
seen for a while, perhaps you remarked on how much or suggest, human development is a complex phenomenon.
how little the person had changed. About a child, you may To understand it, we developmentalists must examine
have said: “Sally’s grown so much since the last time I saw many variables and the relations among them.
her.” About an older person: “Uncle Julio looks much more In this introductory chapter, you will learn how the
frail than he did at Grandpa’s birthday party.” Such com- science of human development came into being. You will
ments suggest that we humans are natural observers of the also learn about the key issues in the scientific study of
ways in which we change with age. But we also notice development. When you finish reading the chapter, you
characteristics that seem to stay the same over time. We will be acquainted with the research designs and methods
might say, “Sally’s always been such a sweet child,” or that developmentalists use.
“Uncle Julio’s mind is as sharp as ever.” And our powers of
observation don’t stop with simple descriptions. We also
come up with theories to explain our observations. Perhaps
you’ve said something like, “Sally’s parents are great role
1.1: An Introduction to
models. That’s probably why she’s so well behaved,” or
“Grandpa and Uncle Julio are both pretty sharp for their
Human Development
Copyright © 2019. Pearson Education, Limited. All rights reserved.
The field of human development is the scientific study of
age-related changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and
personality. Long before the scientific method was used
to study development, though, philosophers offered
explanations for differences they observed in individu-
als of different ages. In the 19th century, the scientific
methods used by early pioneers in the study of human
behavior were applied to questions about age-related
change. Nevertheless, the term development was largely
confined to childhood during the early years. However,
in the second half of the 20th century, behavioral scien-
tists began to acknowledge that important age-related
changes occur across the entire human lifespan. Their
efforts led to useful ways of categorizing important
The unique developmental pathway that each person follows results
from the person’s own characteristics, the choices that others make
issues in the study of development and revealed a wealth
for him in childhood, and the decisions that he makes for himself in of data suggesting that human development is a highly
adulthood. complex process.
17
Boyd, Denise, and Helen Bee. Lifespan Development, Global Edition, Pearson Education, Limited, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/hkied-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5843856.
Created from hkied-ebooks on 2025-01-16 03:56:06.
, 18 Chapter 1
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
1.1.1 Recall the ideas about human development
proposed by early philosophers and scientists
1.1.2 Describe how the lifespan perspective tries to
fully explain human development
1.1.3 Identify the categories used by developmental
scientists to organize the study of human
development
1.1.1: Philosophical and Scientific
Roots
OBJECTIVE: Recall the ideas about human
development proposed by early
philosophers and scientists known as empiricism when he claimed that the mind of a
child is a blank slate. Empiricism is the view that humans
Early philosophers based their ideas about development possess no innate tendencies and that all differences among
on spiritual authorities, general philosophical orientations, humans are attributable to experience. The blank-slate view
and deductive logic. In the 19th century, though, people suggests that adults can mold children into whatever they
who wanted to better understand human development want them to be. Therefore, differences among adults can be
turned to science. explained in terms of differences in their childhood environ-
ORIGINAL SIN, THE BLANK SLATE, AND INNATE
ments rather than as a result of a struggle to overcome any
GOODNESS Philosophers’ inquiries into the nature of
kind of inborn tendencies, as the original-sin view proposed.
development focused on why babies, who appear to be quite Innate goodness—Different still was the innate goodness
similar, grow up to vary widely. They were particularly con- view proposed by 18th-century Swiss philosopher Jean-
cerned with the moral dimensions of development. Jacques Rousseau. He claimed that all human beings are
naturally good and seek out experiences that help them
Early Philosophers’ Views of Development grow (Newman & Newman, 2016). Rousseau believed that
Three approaches to human development have influenced philoso- children need only nurturing and protection to reach their
phers’ debates about developmental outcomes. These perspectives
differ in their emphasis on internal factors, such as inborn tendencies,
full potential. Developmental outcomes are good when a
and external influences, such as parenting. child’s environment refrains from interfering in her
attempts to nurture her own development. In contrast, out-
Original sin—The Christian doctrine of original sin, often comes are poor when a child experiences frustration in her
attributed to 4th-century philosopher Augustine of Hippo, efforts to express the innate goodness with which she was
taught that all humans are born with a selfish nature. To born. Thus, the innate-goodness and original-sin
Copyright © 2019. Pearson Education, Limited. All rights reserved.
reduce the influence of this inborn tendency toward self- approaches share the view that development involves a
ishness, Augustine taught, humans must seek spiritual struggle between internal and external forces. In contrast
rebirth and submit themselves to religious training. Thus, to both, the blank-slate view sees the child as a passive
from this perspective, developmental outcomes, both good recipient of environmental influences.
and bad, result from each individual’s struggle to over-
come an inborn tendency to act immorally when doing so EARLY SCIENTIFIC THEORIES The 19th century saw an
somehow benefits the self. explosion of interest in how scientific methods might be
The following page from the Hoenshel’s Complete Gram- applied to questions that previously had been thought to
mar, published in 1895, illustrates the influence of the doc- belong within the domain of philosophy.
trine of original sin on education and child rearing.
Statements that promote religious and moral principles are Early Scientific Studies and Theories of Development
embedded in this exercise on verbs. The idea was that the In the 19th century, scientific methods were being used to study all
goals of teaching grammar to children and shaping their kinds of phenomena, including human development.
spiritual development could be, and should be, accom-
Charles Darwin—Charles Darwin proposed that studying
plished simultaneously.
children’s development might help scientists better under-
The blank slate—By contrast, 17th-century English philoso- stand the evolution of the human species. To that end, Dar-
pher John Locke drew on a broad philosophical approach win and other like-minded scientists kept detailed records
Boyd, Denise, and Helen Bee. Lifespan Development, Global Edition, Pearson Education, Limited, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/hkied-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5843856.
Created from hkied-ebooks on 2025-01-16 03:56:06.
, Basic Concepts and Methods 19
children’s behavior. His findings became the basis for
many norm-referenced tests that are used today to determine
whether individual children are developing at a rate that is
similar to that of other children of the same age. Such tests
help early educators find ways of helping young children
whose development lags behind that of others.
1.1.2: The Lifespan Perspective
OBJECTIVE: Describe how the lifespan perspective
tries to fully explain human development
Psychologists once thought of adulthood as a long period
of stability followed by a short span of unstable years
immediately preceding death. This view has changed
because, for one thing, it has become common for adults to
go through major life changes, such as divorce and career
shifts. There has also been a significant increase in life
expectancy in the industrialized world. At the beginning of
the 20th century, Americans’ life expectancy at birth was
only 49 years. By the century’s end, the expected lifespan of
someone born in the United States was about 76 years. As a
Charles Darwin, who fathered 10 children, initiated the scientific
result, older adults now constitute a larger proportion of
study of childhood. He used the same scientific methods that led to
the discoveries on which he based his theory of evolution to make the U.S. population than ever before. In fact, adults over
and record daily observations of his children’s development. the age of 100 are one of the most rapidly growing age
groups in the industrialized world. These changes have led
of their own children’s early development (called baby to the adoption of the lifespan perspective, the idea that
biographies), in the hope of finding evidence to support the important changes occur during every period of develop-
theory of evolution (Dewsbury, 2009). These were the first ment and that these changes must be interpreted in terms
organized studies of human development. of the culture and context in which they occur (Baltes,
Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980).
G. Stanley Hall—G. Stanley Hall of Clark University used
questionnaires and interviews to study large numbers of chil-
Key Elements of the Lifespan Perspective
dren. His 1891 article “The Contents of Children’s Minds on
Understanding change in adulthood has become just as important as
Entering School” represented the first scientific study of child
understanding change in childhood, and input from many disciplines
development (White, 1992). Hall agreed with Darwin that the is necessary to fully explain human development. This new perspec-
milestones of childhood were similar to those that had taken tive emphasizes several key elements.
Copyright © 2019. Pearson Education, Limited. All rights reserved.
place in the development of the human species. He thought
that developmentalists should identify norms, or average ages Plasticity—Individuals of all ages possess the capacity for
at which developmental milestones are reached. Norms, Hall positive change in response to environmental demands.
said, could be used to learn about the evolution of the species Interdisciplinary research—Research from different kinds
as well as to track the development of individual children. of disciplinary perspectives (e.g., anthropology, economics,
Arnold Gesell—Arnold Gesell’s research suggested the psychology) is needed to fully understand lifespan devel-
existence of a genetically programmed sequential pattern opment.
of change (Gesell, 1925; Thelen & Adolph, 1992). Gesell Multicontextual nature of development—Individual
used the term maturation to describe such a pattern of development occurs within several interrelated contexts
change. He thought that maturationally determined devel- (e.g., family, neighborhood, culture).
opment occurred, regardless of practice, training, or effort
(Newman & Newman, 2016). For example, infants don’t Paul Baltes (1939–2006) was a leader in the develop-
have to be taught how to walk. Because of his strong belief ment of a comprehensive theory of lifespan human devel-
that many important developmental changes are deter- opment (Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999; Lerner,
mined by maturation, Gesell spent decades studying chil- 2008). Baltes emphasized the positive aspects of advanced
dren and developing norms. He pioneered the use of age. He pointed out that, as human beings age, they adopt
movie cameras and one-way observation devices to study strategies that help them maximize gains and compensate
Boyd, Denise, and Helen Bee. Lifespan Development, Global Edition, Pearson Education, Limited, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/hkied-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5843856.
Created from hkied-ebooks on 2025-01-16 03:56:06.
