, CHAPTER LIST
PART I: PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter 1: The Selection of a Research Approach
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
Chapter 3: The Use of Theory
Chapter 4: Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations
PART II: DESIGNING RESEARCH
Chapter 5: The Introduction
Chapter 6: The Purpose Statement
Chapter 7: Research Questions and Hypotheses
Chapter 8: Quantitative Methods
Chapter 9: Qualitative Methods
Chapter 10: Mixed Methods Procedures
,Chapter 1 — The Selection of a Research Approach
Chapter Overview & Curriculum Scope: Foundational framework examining the intersection of philosophical
worldviews (Postpositivism, Constructivism, Transformative, Pragmatism), research designs, and research methods,
alongside criteria for selecting an approach.
1. According to John W. Creswell and J. David Creswell, what is the definition of a "research
approach"?
• A) The plans and procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of
data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• B) The specific statistical tools and measurement instruments selected to test a deductive hypothesis within a
laboratory setting.
• C) The epistemological stance adopted exclusively by a researcher to critique existing social inequalities and
institutional power structures.
• D) The structured literature synthesis utilized to identify gaps in empirical knowledge prior to data collection.
Answer: A
Rationale: Creswell and Creswell define research approaches as the overall plans and procedures for research that
span the decisions from broad philosophical assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. The overall decision involves which approach should be used to study a topic, informed by the
philosophical worldview assumptions the researcher brings to the study, procedures of inquiry (research designs),
and specific research methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Keywords: research approaches, philosophical worldviews, research designs, research methods
2. In the Creswell research framework, the selection of a research approach results from the
intersection and interaction of which three core components?
• A) Problem statements, literature reviews, and statistical software packages
• B) Theoretical frameworks, data triangulation protocols, and publication guidelines
, • C) Epistemological theories, institutional review board clearances, and sampling techniques
• D) Philosophical worldviews, research designs, and specific research methods
Answer: D
Rationale: The Creswell framework models research approaches as being shaped by the dynamic intersection of
three interconnected elements: philosophical worldviews (the overarching set of beliefs guiding the inquiry), research
designs (the specific procedures of inquiry such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods designs), and research
methods (the specific techniques of data collection, analysis, and interpretation).
Keywords: research framework, philosophical worldviews, research designs, research methods
3. How do Creswell and Creswell define quantitative research in the context of research design?
• A) An approach dedicated to developing emergent themes and patterns through collaborative engagement with
participants in their natural settings.
• B) An approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationships among variables that can be
measured on instruments and analyzed using statistical procedures.
• C) A methodology that prioritizes the practical consequences of actions and adopts pluralistic techniques to solve
immediate real-world problems.
• D) An inquiry process designed primarily to critique power imbalances and transform the social conditions of
marginalized communities.
Answer: B
Rationale: Quantitative research is defined by Creswell and Creswell as an approach for testing objective theories by
examining the relationships among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so
that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. It employs deductive logic, protects against bias,
controls for alternative explanations, and enables generalization and replication.
Keywords: quantitative research, objective theories, variables, statistical procedures, deductive testing
4. Which statement represents the definition of qualitative research established by Creswell and
Creswell?
, • A) A procedural framework focused on testing pre-established hypotheses through experimental controls and
randomized trials.
• B) A dual-strand design that simultaneously gathers numeric scores and narrative records to achieve
convergence.
• C) An empirical methodology aimed at establishing causal laws and deterministic outcomes through standardized
instruments.
• D) An approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem.
Answer: D
Rationale: Qualitative research is defined as an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals
or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The research process involves emerging questions and procedures,
data typically collected in the participant's setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general
themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data.
Keywords: qualitative research, subjective meaning, inductive analysis, emerging procedures
5. According to Creswell and Creswell, what is the defining characteristic of mixed methods
research?
• A) The simultaneous deployment of multiple qualitative data collection tools, such as interviews and focus
groups, within a single case study.
• B) The sequential administration of two distinct statistical instruments to cross-validate psychometric survey
items.
• C) A philosophical orientation that strictly adheres to postpositivist principles while using narrative reporting
techniques.
• D) An approach to inquiry involving the collection and integration of both quantitative and qualitative data to
yield a more complete understanding of a research problem.
Answer: D
Rationale: Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving the collection of both quantitative and
qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical
assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The core assumption is that the integration of qualitative and quantitative
data yields additional insight beyond the information provided by either quantitative or qualitative data alone.
,Keywords: mixed methods, data integration, complementary data, holistic understanding
6. How do Creswell and Creswell conceptualize "worldviews" (also referred to as paradigms or
epistemologies/ontologies) in research design?
• A) A formalized set of institutional regulations governing ethical data management and human subject
protections.
• B) The specific software-driven algorithms applied during quantitative multivariate regression analysis.
• C) A general philosophical orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher brings to a
study.
• D) A static, unchangeable personal ideology that dictates the thematic coding structure of qualitative field notes.
Answer: C
Rationale: Creswell and Creswell define a worldview as a general philosophical orientation about the world and the
nature of research that a researcher brings to a study. Worldviews arise based on discipline orientations, students'
advisors/mentors' inclinations, and past research experiences, representing the underlying beliefs and philosophical
assumptions that guide the choice of research approach.
Keywords: worldview, philosophical orientation, paradigm, epistemology
7. In postpositivist philosophy, what is meant by the assumption of "determinism"?
• A) The conviction that human behavior is entirely driven by economic class struggles and institutional oppression.
• B) The principle that all scientific theories must be generated inductively from the subjective narratives of
research participants.
• C) The view that research outcomes are determined solely by the practical utility and real-world consequences of
an intervention.
• D) The belief that causes determine effects or outcomes, making it essential to identify and assess the factors that
influence consequences.
Answer: D
,Rationale: In postpositivism, determinism represents the philosophical assumption that causes determine effects or
outcomes. Consequently, the problems studied by postpositivists reflect the need to identify and assess the causes
that influence outcomes, such as those found in experiments and correlational studies.
Keywords: postpositivism, determinism, cause and effect, causal assessment
8. Which feature characterizes the "reductionist" element of a postpositivist worldview?
• A) Condensing large qualitative transcripts into broad inductive themes through participant member-checking.
• B) Reducing broad, complex ideas into small, discrete sets of measurable variables and hypotheses to test.
• C) Restricting research inquiries solely to historical documents and community action dialogues.
• D) Minimizing the sample size of an experimental investigation to focus on deep individual narratives.
Answer: B
Rationale: Reductionism in postpositivism refers to the intent to reduce broad ideas into small, discrete sets of ideas
to test, such as the specific variables that comprise hypotheses and research questions. This allows the researcher to
carefully measure and observe empirical reality through quantitative indicators.
Keywords: postpositivism, reductionism, discrete variables, hypothesis testing, empirical measurement
9. Which group of historical and contemporary philosophers is most closely associated with the
development of postpositivist thought as discussed by Creswell and Creswell?
• A) Lev Vygotsky, Yvonna Lincoln, Egon Guba, and Paul Crotty
• B) Karl Marx, Jürgen Habermas, Paulo Freire, and Donna Mertens
• C) Auguste Comte, John Locke, John Stuart Mill, and Karl Popper
• D) John Dewey, William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, and Cleo Cherryholmes
Answer: C
Rationale: Creswell and Creswell identify postpositivist thinkers as including nineteenth-century writers such as
Auguste Comte, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill, along with twentieth-century philosophers such as Karl Popper,
Denis Phillips, and Nicholas Burbules, who contributed to the traditions of determinism, empirical observation, and
,scientific theory testing.
Keywords: postpositivism, Auguste Comte, Karl Popper, John Locke, scientific philosophy
10. How does postpositivism view the concept of "truth" and theory verification in scientific
research?
• A) Absolute truth is completely accessible and permanently established through a single well-designed
randomized controlled trial.
• B) Truth is entirely subjective and multiple, existing solely within the negotiated interpretations of community
members.
• C) Absolute truth can never be proven; instead, researchers test hypotheses to either verify or refute theories and
refine them over time.
• D) Truth is defined strictly by political utility and the degree to which an investigation empowers disenfranchised
populations.
Answer: C
Rationale: Postpositivism holds that researchers cannot prove absolute truth when studying human behavior and
actions. Because knowledge is conjectural and absolute truth can never be found, research evidence is always
imperfect and fallible; researchers test hypotheses and theories, indicating a failure to reject or a need to refine them
rather than claiming absolute proof.
Keywords: postpositivism, fallibility, theory verification, conjectural knowledge
11. In the constructivist (social constructivist) worldview, what is the primary goal of the researcher
during inquiry?
• A) To isolate independent variables and measure their precise statistical effect on standardized dependent
measures.
• B) To test pre-existing theoretical propositions against a large, representative national probabilistic sample.
• C) To rely as much as possible on the participants' views of the situation being studied and capture their complex,
subjective meanings.
, • D) To implement pragmatic interventions that immediately resolve practical problems in an organizational
workflow.
Answer: C
Rationale: Social constructivists hold the assumption that individuals seek understanding of the world in which they
live and work, developing subjective meanings of their experiences directed toward certain objects or things. The
goal of the researcher is to rely as much as possible on the participants' views of the situation being studied,
recognizing that these subjective meanings are varied, multiple, and complex.
Keywords: constructivism, subjective meanings, participant views, complexity
12. Which analytical direction characterizes the constructivist research process according to
Creswell and Creswell?
• A) An inductive logic where the researcher generates or inductively develops a theory or pattern of meaning from
the data.
• B) A deductive logic where hypotheses are established prior to data collection and systematically tested for
statistical significance.
• C) A cyclical mathematical modeling process where variables are sequentially entered into multivariate regression
equations.
• D) An experimental manipulation sequence where control groups are held constant to isolate causal mechanisms.
Answer: A
Rationale: In social constructivism, the research process follows an inductive path. Rather than starting with a theory
(as in postpositivism), the investigator generates or inductively develops a theory or pattern of meaning throughout
the research process by analyzing participants' views and detailed situational descriptions.
Keywords: constructivism, inductive logic, theory generation, pattern of meaning
13. Which scholars and philosophers are identified by Creswell and Creswell as foundational figures
in social constructivist thinking?
• A) Auguste Comte, Isaac Newton, René Descartes, and John Locke
, • B) Donna Mertens, Paulo Freire, Stephen Kemmis, and Karl Marx
• C) Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey, and Cleo Cherryholmes
• D) Lev Vygotsky, Peter Berger, Thomas Luckmann, and Yvonna Lincoln
Answer: D
Rationale: Creswell and Creswell highlight social constructivist thought as being rooted in works by theorists such as
Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann (The Social Construction of Reality), Lev Vygotsky, Paul Crotty, and
contemporary qualitative methodologists like Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba (Naturalistic Inquiry).
Keywords: constructivism, Lev Vygotsky, Berger and Luckmann, Lincoln and Guba, social construction
14. Why do constructivist researchers emphasize broad, general, and open-ended questions during
data collection?
• A) To enable automated computational text parsing and standardized numerical coding across large survey
panels.
• B) To allow participants to construct the meaning of a situation and articulate their perspectives without being
constrained by predetermined categories.
• C) To eliminate researcher subjectivity and ensure completely detached, objective observation of behavioral
phenomena.
• D) To statistically correlate discrete demographic markers with behavioral outcomes in experimental trials.
Answer: B
Rationale: Constructivist researchers use broad and general open-ended questions so that the participants can
construct the meaning of a situation, typically forged in discussions or interactions with other persons. The more
open-ended the questioning, the better the researcher can listen carefully to what people say or do in their natural
life settings.
Keywords: constructivism, open-ended questions, meaning construction, natural settings
15. The transformative worldview arose during the 1980s and 1990s primarily because of which
perceived limitation in postpositivist and constructivist traditions?
PART I: PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter 1: The Selection of a Research Approach
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
Chapter 3: The Use of Theory
Chapter 4: Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations
PART II: DESIGNING RESEARCH
Chapter 5: The Introduction
Chapter 6: The Purpose Statement
Chapter 7: Research Questions and Hypotheses
Chapter 8: Quantitative Methods
Chapter 9: Qualitative Methods
Chapter 10: Mixed Methods Procedures
,Chapter 1 — The Selection of a Research Approach
Chapter Overview & Curriculum Scope: Foundational framework examining the intersection of philosophical
worldviews (Postpositivism, Constructivism, Transformative, Pragmatism), research designs, and research methods,
alongside criteria for selecting an approach.
1. According to John W. Creswell and J. David Creswell, what is the definition of a "research
approach"?
• A) The plans and procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of
data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• B) The specific statistical tools and measurement instruments selected to test a deductive hypothesis within a
laboratory setting.
• C) The epistemological stance adopted exclusively by a researcher to critique existing social inequalities and
institutional power structures.
• D) The structured literature synthesis utilized to identify gaps in empirical knowledge prior to data collection.
Answer: A
Rationale: Creswell and Creswell define research approaches as the overall plans and procedures for research that
span the decisions from broad philosophical assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. The overall decision involves which approach should be used to study a topic, informed by the
philosophical worldview assumptions the researcher brings to the study, procedures of inquiry (research designs),
and specific research methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Keywords: research approaches, philosophical worldviews, research designs, research methods
2. In the Creswell research framework, the selection of a research approach results from the
intersection and interaction of which three core components?
• A) Problem statements, literature reviews, and statistical software packages
• B) Theoretical frameworks, data triangulation protocols, and publication guidelines
, • C) Epistemological theories, institutional review board clearances, and sampling techniques
• D) Philosophical worldviews, research designs, and specific research methods
Answer: D
Rationale: The Creswell framework models research approaches as being shaped by the dynamic intersection of
three interconnected elements: philosophical worldviews (the overarching set of beliefs guiding the inquiry), research
designs (the specific procedures of inquiry such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods designs), and research
methods (the specific techniques of data collection, analysis, and interpretation).
Keywords: research framework, philosophical worldviews, research designs, research methods
3. How do Creswell and Creswell define quantitative research in the context of research design?
• A) An approach dedicated to developing emergent themes and patterns through collaborative engagement with
participants in their natural settings.
• B) An approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationships among variables that can be
measured on instruments and analyzed using statistical procedures.
• C) A methodology that prioritizes the practical consequences of actions and adopts pluralistic techniques to solve
immediate real-world problems.
• D) An inquiry process designed primarily to critique power imbalances and transform the social conditions of
marginalized communities.
Answer: B
Rationale: Quantitative research is defined by Creswell and Creswell as an approach for testing objective theories by
examining the relationships among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so
that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. It employs deductive logic, protects against bias,
controls for alternative explanations, and enables generalization and replication.
Keywords: quantitative research, objective theories, variables, statistical procedures, deductive testing
4. Which statement represents the definition of qualitative research established by Creswell and
Creswell?
, • A) A procedural framework focused on testing pre-established hypotheses through experimental controls and
randomized trials.
• B) A dual-strand design that simultaneously gathers numeric scores and narrative records to achieve
convergence.
• C) An empirical methodology aimed at establishing causal laws and deterministic outcomes through standardized
instruments.
• D) An approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem.
Answer: D
Rationale: Qualitative research is defined as an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals
or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The research process involves emerging questions and procedures,
data typically collected in the participant's setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general
themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data.
Keywords: qualitative research, subjective meaning, inductive analysis, emerging procedures
5. According to Creswell and Creswell, what is the defining characteristic of mixed methods
research?
• A) The simultaneous deployment of multiple qualitative data collection tools, such as interviews and focus
groups, within a single case study.
• B) The sequential administration of two distinct statistical instruments to cross-validate psychometric survey
items.
• C) A philosophical orientation that strictly adheres to postpositivist principles while using narrative reporting
techniques.
• D) An approach to inquiry involving the collection and integration of both quantitative and qualitative data to
yield a more complete understanding of a research problem.
Answer: D
Rationale: Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving the collection of both quantitative and
qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical
assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The core assumption is that the integration of qualitative and quantitative
data yields additional insight beyond the information provided by either quantitative or qualitative data alone.
,Keywords: mixed methods, data integration, complementary data, holistic understanding
6. How do Creswell and Creswell conceptualize "worldviews" (also referred to as paradigms or
epistemologies/ontologies) in research design?
• A) A formalized set of institutional regulations governing ethical data management and human subject
protections.
• B) The specific software-driven algorithms applied during quantitative multivariate regression analysis.
• C) A general philosophical orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher brings to a
study.
• D) A static, unchangeable personal ideology that dictates the thematic coding structure of qualitative field notes.
Answer: C
Rationale: Creswell and Creswell define a worldview as a general philosophical orientation about the world and the
nature of research that a researcher brings to a study. Worldviews arise based on discipline orientations, students'
advisors/mentors' inclinations, and past research experiences, representing the underlying beliefs and philosophical
assumptions that guide the choice of research approach.
Keywords: worldview, philosophical orientation, paradigm, epistemology
7. In postpositivist philosophy, what is meant by the assumption of "determinism"?
• A) The conviction that human behavior is entirely driven by economic class struggles and institutional oppression.
• B) The principle that all scientific theories must be generated inductively from the subjective narratives of
research participants.
• C) The view that research outcomes are determined solely by the practical utility and real-world consequences of
an intervention.
• D) The belief that causes determine effects or outcomes, making it essential to identify and assess the factors that
influence consequences.
Answer: D
,Rationale: In postpositivism, determinism represents the philosophical assumption that causes determine effects or
outcomes. Consequently, the problems studied by postpositivists reflect the need to identify and assess the causes
that influence outcomes, such as those found in experiments and correlational studies.
Keywords: postpositivism, determinism, cause and effect, causal assessment
8. Which feature characterizes the "reductionist" element of a postpositivist worldview?
• A) Condensing large qualitative transcripts into broad inductive themes through participant member-checking.
• B) Reducing broad, complex ideas into small, discrete sets of measurable variables and hypotheses to test.
• C) Restricting research inquiries solely to historical documents and community action dialogues.
• D) Minimizing the sample size of an experimental investigation to focus on deep individual narratives.
Answer: B
Rationale: Reductionism in postpositivism refers to the intent to reduce broad ideas into small, discrete sets of ideas
to test, such as the specific variables that comprise hypotheses and research questions. This allows the researcher to
carefully measure and observe empirical reality through quantitative indicators.
Keywords: postpositivism, reductionism, discrete variables, hypothesis testing, empirical measurement
9. Which group of historical and contemporary philosophers is most closely associated with the
development of postpositivist thought as discussed by Creswell and Creswell?
• A) Lev Vygotsky, Yvonna Lincoln, Egon Guba, and Paul Crotty
• B) Karl Marx, Jürgen Habermas, Paulo Freire, and Donna Mertens
• C) Auguste Comte, John Locke, John Stuart Mill, and Karl Popper
• D) John Dewey, William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, and Cleo Cherryholmes
Answer: C
Rationale: Creswell and Creswell identify postpositivist thinkers as including nineteenth-century writers such as
Auguste Comte, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill, along with twentieth-century philosophers such as Karl Popper,
Denis Phillips, and Nicholas Burbules, who contributed to the traditions of determinism, empirical observation, and
,scientific theory testing.
Keywords: postpositivism, Auguste Comte, Karl Popper, John Locke, scientific philosophy
10. How does postpositivism view the concept of "truth" and theory verification in scientific
research?
• A) Absolute truth is completely accessible and permanently established through a single well-designed
randomized controlled trial.
• B) Truth is entirely subjective and multiple, existing solely within the negotiated interpretations of community
members.
• C) Absolute truth can never be proven; instead, researchers test hypotheses to either verify or refute theories and
refine them over time.
• D) Truth is defined strictly by political utility and the degree to which an investigation empowers disenfranchised
populations.
Answer: C
Rationale: Postpositivism holds that researchers cannot prove absolute truth when studying human behavior and
actions. Because knowledge is conjectural and absolute truth can never be found, research evidence is always
imperfect and fallible; researchers test hypotheses and theories, indicating a failure to reject or a need to refine them
rather than claiming absolute proof.
Keywords: postpositivism, fallibility, theory verification, conjectural knowledge
11. In the constructivist (social constructivist) worldview, what is the primary goal of the researcher
during inquiry?
• A) To isolate independent variables and measure their precise statistical effect on standardized dependent
measures.
• B) To test pre-existing theoretical propositions against a large, representative national probabilistic sample.
• C) To rely as much as possible on the participants' views of the situation being studied and capture their complex,
subjective meanings.
, • D) To implement pragmatic interventions that immediately resolve practical problems in an organizational
workflow.
Answer: C
Rationale: Social constructivists hold the assumption that individuals seek understanding of the world in which they
live and work, developing subjective meanings of their experiences directed toward certain objects or things. The
goal of the researcher is to rely as much as possible on the participants' views of the situation being studied,
recognizing that these subjective meanings are varied, multiple, and complex.
Keywords: constructivism, subjective meanings, participant views, complexity
12. Which analytical direction characterizes the constructivist research process according to
Creswell and Creswell?
• A) An inductive logic where the researcher generates or inductively develops a theory or pattern of meaning from
the data.
• B) A deductive logic where hypotheses are established prior to data collection and systematically tested for
statistical significance.
• C) A cyclical mathematical modeling process where variables are sequentially entered into multivariate regression
equations.
• D) An experimental manipulation sequence where control groups are held constant to isolate causal mechanisms.
Answer: A
Rationale: In social constructivism, the research process follows an inductive path. Rather than starting with a theory
(as in postpositivism), the investigator generates or inductively develops a theory or pattern of meaning throughout
the research process by analyzing participants' views and detailed situational descriptions.
Keywords: constructivism, inductive logic, theory generation, pattern of meaning
13. Which scholars and philosophers are identified by Creswell and Creswell as foundational figures
in social constructivist thinking?
• A) Auguste Comte, Isaac Newton, René Descartes, and John Locke
, • B) Donna Mertens, Paulo Freire, Stephen Kemmis, and Karl Marx
• C) Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey, and Cleo Cherryholmes
• D) Lev Vygotsky, Peter Berger, Thomas Luckmann, and Yvonna Lincoln
Answer: D
Rationale: Creswell and Creswell highlight social constructivist thought as being rooted in works by theorists such as
Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann (The Social Construction of Reality), Lev Vygotsky, Paul Crotty, and
contemporary qualitative methodologists like Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba (Naturalistic Inquiry).
Keywords: constructivism, Lev Vygotsky, Berger and Luckmann, Lincoln and Guba, social construction
14. Why do constructivist researchers emphasize broad, general, and open-ended questions during
data collection?
• A) To enable automated computational text parsing and standardized numerical coding across large survey
panels.
• B) To allow participants to construct the meaning of a situation and articulate their perspectives without being
constrained by predetermined categories.
• C) To eliminate researcher subjectivity and ensure completely detached, objective observation of behavioral
phenomena.
• D) To statistically correlate discrete demographic markers with behavioral outcomes in experimental trials.
Answer: B
Rationale: Constructivist researchers use broad and general open-ended questions so that the participants can
construct the meaning of a situation, typically forged in discussions or interactions with other persons. The more
open-ended the questioning, the better the researcher can listen carefully to what people say or do in their natural
life settings.
Keywords: constructivism, open-ended questions, meaning construction, natural settings
15. The transformative worldview arose during the 1980s and 1990s primarily because of which
perceived limitation in postpositivist and constructivist traditions?
