Hondros BIO 117 Final Exam 2026/2027 | 180+ Questions & Answers | Cell Biology, A&P, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Endocrine, Immunity & Reproduction | Hondros College of Nursing

This Hondros BIO 117 Final Exam 2026/2027 study guide contains 180+ questions with answers across 28 pages, offering comprehensive review of the biology, anatomy, and physiology concepts represented in the uploaded material. The document covers cell structure and transport, biological macromolecules, tissues, skeletal and muscular anatomy, nervous-system physiology, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, digestion, hematology, immunity, renal physiology, acid-base balance, endocrine regulation, and male and female reproduction. The question-and-answer format is particularly suited to active recall, self-testing, and comprehensive BIO 117 final-exam preparation. The opening portion provides extensive coverage of cell biology and biochemistry. Students review mitochondria and ATP production, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and cellular transport mechanisms such as diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, filtration, protein pumps, endocytosis, and exocytosis. The guide also examines the sodium-potassium pump and distinguishes active from passive transport. Macromolecule questions cover carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides, glycogen, starch, cellulose, triglycerides, phospholipids, amino acids, DNA, and RNA. The document then develops core anatomy and tissue concepts, including anatomical directions such as superior, inferior, medial, lateral, proximal, and distal. Students review epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues; squamous, cuboidal, and columnar cells; adipose tissue; fibroblasts; chondrocytes; osteocytes; ligaments; tendons; fascia; and skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Membranes and integumentary anatomy include cutaneous, mucous, serous and synovial membranes together with the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The skeletal and nervous-system sections review the axial and appendicular skeleton, skull, vertebral column, sternum, ribs, pectoral and pelvic girdles, paranasal sinuses, humerus, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, epiphyseal plate, and periosteum. Nervous-system material includes neurons and neuroglia, neurotransmitters, and the sympathetic versus parasympathetic divisions, emphasizing the physiological differences between the body's “fight or flight” and “rest and digest” responses. A major portion focuses on cardiovascular, blood, and respiratory physiology. Students review arteries, veins and capillaries; hemoglobin, albumin, prothrombin and fibrinogen; oxygenated and deoxygenated circulation; tidal volume, residual volume and vital capacity; and respiratory acid-base disturbances. Later questions provide the complete pathway of blood through the heart and review pulmonary circulation and the cardiac conduction system, including the SA node, AV node, AV bundle, right and left bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers. The hematology, lymphatic, and immune-system material covers anemia, leukocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, thrombocytes, thrombocytopenia, ABO blood groups, Rh factor, and universal donor and recipient concepts. Students also review the lymphatic system, tonsils, spleen, thymus, antibodies, antigens, pathogens, natural acquired passive immunity, and the three lines of immune defense. Later questions distinguish B-cell antibody production, T-cell-mediated immunity, active versus passive immunity, and primary versus secondary immune responses. The guide includes significant digestive, renal, and acid-base physiology. Digestive questions address the mouth, salivary amylase, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, duodenum, pancreas, pancreatic amylase and lipase, liver, bile, and gallbladder, as well as the complete pathway of food through the gastrointestinal tract. Renal content reviews kidney functions, renin, erythropoietin, Bowman's capsule, urine flow, normal urine characteristics, and abnormal urinary constituents. Acid-base questions differentiate metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, and respiratory alkalosis using pH, bicarbonate, PaCO₂, and compensatory respiratory responses. Another major area is the endocrine system. Questions review FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, growth hormone, oxytocin, ADH, calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, insulin, and glucagon. The document connects these hormones with follicular development, ovulation, cortisol production, thyroid activity, lactation, tissue growth, water reabsorption, calcium regulation, and blood-glucose homeostasis. It also distinguishes anterior and posterior pituitary hormones. The reproductive physiology section covers mitosis versus meiosis, male reproductive anatomy, autonomic regulation, primary and secondary sexual characteristics, uterine layers, fertilization, the zygote and early embryo, breast-related hormones, and pregnancy. The guide concludes with the stages of labor and delivery, placental hormones including hCG, hPL, estrogens, and progesterone, and a final review of pulmonary circulation, cardiac electrical conduction, inspiration, expiration, cardiac output, homeostasis, and cell organelles. Relevant students: This document is particularly relevant for Hondros College of Nursing BIO 117 students, practical nursing students, nursing prerequisite students, anatomy and physiology students, introductory human biology students, and learners preparing for comprehensive examinations covering cell biology, human body systems, homeostasis, immunity, endocrine regulation, renal physiology, and reproduction. Source and accuracy note: The uploaded document identifies itself as HONDROS BIO 117 FINAL EXAM 2026/2027 EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS | 100% PASS. The descriptions above are based specifically on the uploaded 28-page resource. Because some individual answers in third-party study materials may contain inaccuracies, the content should be used as a study resource rather than treated as an official Hondros College examination or authoritative clinical reference. 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