BIO 169 EXAMS SCRIPT 2026/2027 QUESTIONS AND
SOLUTIONS RATED A+
✔✔Cardiac Output - ✔✔The volume pumped by each ventricle in one minute
CO = HR x SV
✔✔What can adjust the heart rate? - ✔✔1. The autonomic nervous system (medulla
oblongata)
2. Ions (potassium, calcium)
3. Hormones (thyroid hormones, catecholamines)
✔✔What three factors govern stroke volume? - ✔✔1. Preload
2. Contractility
3. Afterload
✔✔What is preload? - ✔✔amount of tension (blood) in ventricle before it contracts
increased preload, increases SV
✔✔What is contractility? - ✔✔force of contraction
increased contractility, increases SV
✔✔What is afterload? - ✔✔resistance left ventricle must overcome to circulate blood
increased afterload, decreases SV
✔✔Why is atrial repolarization not recorded on an ECG? - ✔✔he signal is obscured by
ventricular depolarization
✔✔What does ANP do? - ✔✔decreases blood pressure and blood volume
✔✔What are the three layers of the blood vessels? - ✔✔tunica interna, tunica media,
tunica externa
✔✔What kind of tissue is the tunica interna? - ✔✔Endothelium: Simple Squamous
epithelium
✔✔What kind of tissue is the tunica media? - ✔✔Smooth muscle fibers
Changes in diameter of the blood vessel under ANS ; the ability of vessels to
vasoconstrict and vasodilate to control the amount of blood delivering to tissues
✔✔What kind of tissue is the tunica externa? - ✔✔Dense irregular connective tissue
that often merges with that of neighboring structures.
✔✔What causes vasoconstriction? - ✔✔Sympathetic nervous system
, ✔✔what causes vasodilation - ✔✔Sympathetic nervous system
✔✔Largest layer of arteries? - ✔✔tunica media
✔✔Largest layer of veins? - ✔✔tunica externa
✔✔What predominates in large arteries? - ✔✔Elastic fibers (stretch and return to
original shape)
✔✔What predominates in medium sized arteries? - ✔✔Smooth muscle (vasodilation,
vasoconstriction)
✔✔What are the three types of capillaries? - ✔✔1. continuous
2. fenestrated (pores on endothelial layer)
3. sinusoidal (large gaps in endothelium and incomplete basement membrane)
✔✔Site of continues capillaries? - ✔✔lungs, nervous tissue (barriers), and muscle ; it is
the most common type
✔✔Site of fenestrated capillaries? - ✔✔kidneys, small intestine, and endocrine glands
✔✔Site of sinusoidal capillaries - ✔✔liver, bone marrow, spleen
✔✔What are the two layers of capillaries? - ✔✔endothelium and basement membrane
✔✔What pushes fluid out of capillaries? - ✔✔capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP)
✔✔What pulls fluid into the capillaries? - ✔✔blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP)
✔✔Three main causes of edema? - ✔✔1. High Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure.
2. Decreased Colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic) pressure.
3. Obstructed lymphatic drainage.
✔✔What two variables govern blood glow? - ✔✔Pressure gradient causes a blood to
flow & Resistance opposes blood flow
✔✔How do you measure blood pressure? - ✔✔BP = CO x PR
✔✔What impacts cardiac output? - ✔✔stroke volume and heart rate
✔✔what impacts peripheral resistance? - ✔✔1. vessel length
2. vessel diameter
3. viscosity of the blood
SOLUTIONS RATED A+
✔✔Cardiac Output - ✔✔The volume pumped by each ventricle in one minute
CO = HR x SV
✔✔What can adjust the heart rate? - ✔✔1. The autonomic nervous system (medulla
oblongata)
2. Ions (potassium, calcium)
3. Hormones (thyroid hormones, catecholamines)
✔✔What three factors govern stroke volume? - ✔✔1. Preload
2. Contractility
3. Afterload
✔✔What is preload? - ✔✔amount of tension (blood) in ventricle before it contracts
increased preload, increases SV
✔✔What is contractility? - ✔✔force of contraction
increased contractility, increases SV
✔✔What is afterload? - ✔✔resistance left ventricle must overcome to circulate blood
increased afterload, decreases SV
✔✔Why is atrial repolarization not recorded on an ECG? - ✔✔he signal is obscured by
ventricular depolarization
✔✔What does ANP do? - ✔✔decreases blood pressure and blood volume
✔✔What are the three layers of the blood vessels? - ✔✔tunica interna, tunica media,
tunica externa
✔✔What kind of tissue is the tunica interna? - ✔✔Endothelium: Simple Squamous
epithelium
✔✔What kind of tissue is the tunica media? - ✔✔Smooth muscle fibers
Changes in diameter of the blood vessel under ANS ; the ability of vessels to
vasoconstrict and vasodilate to control the amount of blood delivering to tissues
✔✔What kind of tissue is the tunica externa? - ✔✔Dense irregular connective tissue
that often merges with that of neighboring structures.
✔✔What causes vasoconstriction? - ✔✔Sympathetic nervous system
, ✔✔what causes vasodilation - ✔✔Sympathetic nervous system
✔✔Largest layer of arteries? - ✔✔tunica media
✔✔Largest layer of veins? - ✔✔tunica externa
✔✔What predominates in large arteries? - ✔✔Elastic fibers (stretch and return to
original shape)
✔✔What predominates in medium sized arteries? - ✔✔Smooth muscle (vasodilation,
vasoconstriction)
✔✔What are the three types of capillaries? - ✔✔1. continuous
2. fenestrated (pores on endothelial layer)
3. sinusoidal (large gaps in endothelium and incomplete basement membrane)
✔✔Site of continues capillaries? - ✔✔lungs, nervous tissue (barriers), and muscle ; it is
the most common type
✔✔Site of fenestrated capillaries? - ✔✔kidneys, small intestine, and endocrine glands
✔✔Site of sinusoidal capillaries - ✔✔liver, bone marrow, spleen
✔✔What are the two layers of capillaries? - ✔✔endothelium and basement membrane
✔✔What pushes fluid out of capillaries? - ✔✔capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP)
✔✔What pulls fluid into the capillaries? - ✔✔blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP)
✔✔Three main causes of edema? - ✔✔1. High Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure.
2. Decreased Colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic) pressure.
3. Obstructed lymphatic drainage.
✔✔What two variables govern blood glow? - ✔✔Pressure gradient causes a blood to
flow & Resistance opposes blood flow
✔✔How do you measure blood pressure? - ✔✔BP = CO x PR
✔✔What impacts cardiac output? - ✔✔stroke volume and heart rate
✔✔what impacts peripheral resistance? - ✔✔1. vessel length
2. vessel diameter
3. viscosity of the blood
