LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT EXAM #2
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Culture - ANSWER -is a very broad term that encompasses the roles of ethnicity and
socioeconomic factors in children's development
It's the broadest context in which students and teachers live, reinforcing the society's
values and customs
For example, some cultures (such as rural China and Iran) emphasize traditional gender
roles
The chronosystem - ANSWER -includes the sociohistorical conditions of students'
development
For example, the lives of children today differ in many ways from what their parents and
grandparents experienced as children
Today's children are more likely to be in child care, use computers, and grow up in new
kinds of dispersed, deconcentrated cities that are not quite urban, rural, or suburban
Evaluating Bronfenbrenner's Theory - ANSWER -Bronfenbrenner's theory has gained
popularity in recent years
It provides one of the few theoretical frameworks for systematically examining social
contexts on both micro and macro levels, bridging the gap between behavioral theories
that focus on small settings and anthropological theories that analyze larger settings
His theory has been instrumental in showing how different contexts of children's lives
are interconnected
As we have just discussed, teachers often need to consider not just what goes on in the
classroom but also what happens in students' families, neighborhoods, and peer groups
Five Environmental Systems - ANSWER -Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory identifies
five environmental systems that range from close interpersonal interactions to broad-
based influences of culture
The five systems are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem
A microsystem - ANSWER -a setting in which the individual spends considerable time,
such as the student's family, peers, school, and neighborhood
,Within these microsystems, the individual has direct interactions with parents, teachers,
peers, and others
For Bronfenbrenner, the student is not a passive recipient of experiences but is
someone who reciprocally interacts with others and helps to construct the microsystem
The exosystem - ANSWER -at work when experiences in another setting (in which the
student does not have an active role) influence what students and teachers experience
in the immediate context
For example, consider the school and park supervisory boards in a community
They have strong roles in determining the quality of schools, parks, recreation facilities,
and libraries, which can help or hinder a child's development
Eight Stages of Human Development - ANSWER -In Erikson's (1968) theory, eight
stages of development unfold as people go through the human life span
Each stage consists of a developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis
For Erikson, each crisis is not catastrophic but a turning point of increased vulnerability
and enhanced potential
The more successfully an individual resolves each crisis, the more psychologically
healthy the individual will be
Each stage has both positive and negative aspects
Trust versus mistrust - ANSWER -Erikson's first psychosocial stage
It occurs in the first year of life
The development of trust requires warm, nurturing caregiving
The positive outcome is a feeling of comfort and minimal fear
Mistrust develops when infants are treated negatively or ignored
Autonomy versus shame and doubt - ANSWER -Erikson's second psychosocial stage
It occurs in late infancy and the toddler years
After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their
own
They assert their independence and realize their will
,If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they develop a sense of
shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt - ANSWER -Erikson's third psychosocial stage
It corresponds to early childhood, about 3 to 5 years of age
As young children experience a widening social world, they are challenged more than
they were as infants
To cope with these challenges, they need to engage in active, purposeful behavior that
involves initiative
Children develop uncomfortable guilt feelings if they are irresponsible or are made to
feel too anxious
Industry versus inferiority - ANSWER -Erikson's fourth psychosocial stage
It corresponds approximately with the elementary school years, from 6 years of age until
puberty or early adolescence
As children move into the elementary school years, they direct their energy toward
mastering knowledge and intellectual skills
The danger in the elementary school years is developing a sense of inferiority,
unproductiveness, and incompetence
Identity versus identity confusion - ANSWER -Erikson's fifth psychosocial stage
It corresponds to the adolescent years
Adolescents try to find out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are
going in life
They are confronted with many new roles and adult statuses (such as vocational and
romantic)
Adolescents need to be allowed to explore different paths to attain a healthy identity
If adolescents do not adequately explore different roles and don't carve out a positive
future path, they can remain confused about their identity
Intimacy versus isolation - ANSWER -Erikson's sixth psychosocial stage
It corresponds to the early adult years, the twenties and thirties
, The developmental task is to form positive close relationships with others
The hazard of this stage is that one will fail to form an intimate relationship with a
romantic partner or friend and become socially isolated
Generativity versus stagnation - ANSWER -Erikson's seventh psychosocial stage
It corresponds to the middle adulthood years, the forties and fifties
Generativity means transmitting something positive to the next generation
This can involve such roles as parenting and teaching, through which adults assist the
next generation in developing useful lives
Erikson described stagnation as the feeling of having done nothing to help the next
generation
Integrity versus despair - ANSWER -Erikson's eighth and final psychosocial stage
It corresponds to the late adulthood years, the sixties until death
Older adults review their lives, reflecting on what they have done
If the retrospective evaluations are positive, they develop a sense of integrity
That is, they view their life as positively integrated and worth living
In contrast, older adults become despairing if their backward glances are mainly
negative
Evaluating Erikson's Theory - ANSWER -Erikson's theory captures some of life's key
socioemotional tasks and places them in a developmental framework
His concept of identity is especially helpful in understanding older adolescents and
college students
His overall theory was a critical force in forging our current view of human development
as lifelong rather than being restricted only to childhood
SR #6: When poor parents can't afford diapers, babies wear dirty diapers longer -
ANSWER -They are such a hot commodity, pharmacies and stores sometimes keep
them behind glass
They are the first line of defense against infection and disease — and are even linked to
preventing depression and violence
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Culture - ANSWER -is a very broad term that encompasses the roles of ethnicity and
socioeconomic factors in children's development
It's the broadest context in which students and teachers live, reinforcing the society's
values and customs
For example, some cultures (such as rural China and Iran) emphasize traditional gender
roles
The chronosystem - ANSWER -includes the sociohistorical conditions of students'
development
For example, the lives of children today differ in many ways from what their parents and
grandparents experienced as children
Today's children are more likely to be in child care, use computers, and grow up in new
kinds of dispersed, deconcentrated cities that are not quite urban, rural, or suburban
Evaluating Bronfenbrenner's Theory - ANSWER -Bronfenbrenner's theory has gained
popularity in recent years
It provides one of the few theoretical frameworks for systematically examining social
contexts on both micro and macro levels, bridging the gap between behavioral theories
that focus on small settings and anthropological theories that analyze larger settings
His theory has been instrumental in showing how different contexts of children's lives
are interconnected
As we have just discussed, teachers often need to consider not just what goes on in the
classroom but also what happens in students' families, neighborhoods, and peer groups
Five Environmental Systems - ANSWER -Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory identifies
five environmental systems that range from close interpersonal interactions to broad-
based influences of culture
The five systems are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem
A microsystem - ANSWER -a setting in which the individual spends considerable time,
such as the student's family, peers, school, and neighborhood
,Within these microsystems, the individual has direct interactions with parents, teachers,
peers, and others
For Bronfenbrenner, the student is not a passive recipient of experiences but is
someone who reciprocally interacts with others and helps to construct the microsystem
The exosystem - ANSWER -at work when experiences in another setting (in which the
student does not have an active role) influence what students and teachers experience
in the immediate context
For example, consider the school and park supervisory boards in a community
They have strong roles in determining the quality of schools, parks, recreation facilities,
and libraries, which can help or hinder a child's development
Eight Stages of Human Development - ANSWER -In Erikson's (1968) theory, eight
stages of development unfold as people go through the human life span
Each stage consists of a developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis
For Erikson, each crisis is not catastrophic but a turning point of increased vulnerability
and enhanced potential
The more successfully an individual resolves each crisis, the more psychologically
healthy the individual will be
Each stage has both positive and negative aspects
Trust versus mistrust - ANSWER -Erikson's first psychosocial stage
It occurs in the first year of life
The development of trust requires warm, nurturing caregiving
The positive outcome is a feeling of comfort and minimal fear
Mistrust develops when infants are treated negatively or ignored
Autonomy versus shame and doubt - ANSWER -Erikson's second psychosocial stage
It occurs in late infancy and the toddler years
After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their
own
They assert their independence and realize their will
,If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they develop a sense of
shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt - ANSWER -Erikson's third psychosocial stage
It corresponds to early childhood, about 3 to 5 years of age
As young children experience a widening social world, they are challenged more than
they were as infants
To cope with these challenges, they need to engage in active, purposeful behavior that
involves initiative
Children develop uncomfortable guilt feelings if they are irresponsible or are made to
feel too anxious
Industry versus inferiority - ANSWER -Erikson's fourth psychosocial stage
It corresponds approximately with the elementary school years, from 6 years of age until
puberty or early adolescence
As children move into the elementary school years, they direct their energy toward
mastering knowledge and intellectual skills
The danger in the elementary school years is developing a sense of inferiority,
unproductiveness, and incompetence
Identity versus identity confusion - ANSWER -Erikson's fifth psychosocial stage
It corresponds to the adolescent years
Adolescents try to find out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are
going in life
They are confronted with many new roles and adult statuses (such as vocational and
romantic)
Adolescents need to be allowed to explore different paths to attain a healthy identity
If adolescents do not adequately explore different roles and don't carve out a positive
future path, they can remain confused about their identity
Intimacy versus isolation - ANSWER -Erikson's sixth psychosocial stage
It corresponds to the early adult years, the twenties and thirties
, The developmental task is to form positive close relationships with others
The hazard of this stage is that one will fail to form an intimate relationship with a
romantic partner or friend and become socially isolated
Generativity versus stagnation - ANSWER -Erikson's seventh psychosocial stage
It corresponds to the middle adulthood years, the forties and fifties
Generativity means transmitting something positive to the next generation
This can involve such roles as parenting and teaching, through which adults assist the
next generation in developing useful lives
Erikson described stagnation as the feeling of having done nothing to help the next
generation
Integrity versus despair - ANSWER -Erikson's eighth and final psychosocial stage
It corresponds to the late adulthood years, the sixties until death
Older adults review their lives, reflecting on what they have done
If the retrospective evaluations are positive, they develop a sense of integrity
That is, they view their life as positively integrated and worth living
In contrast, older adults become despairing if their backward glances are mainly
negative
Evaluating Erikson's Theory - ANSWER -Erikson's theory captures some of life's key
socioemotional tasks and places them in a developmental framework
His concept of identity is especially helpful in understanding older adolescents and
college students
His overall theory was a critical force in forging our current view of human development
as lifelong rather than being restricted only to childhood
SR #6: When poor parents can't afford diapers, babies wear dirty diapers longer -
ANSWER -They are such a hot commodity, pharmacies and stores sometimes keep
them behind glass
They are the first line of defense against infection and disease — and are even linked to
preventing depression and violence
