Learning goals: answer sheet
,Social Psychology
Learning goals lecture 8: Understanding Media
McLuhan: “The medium is the message”
Marshall McLuhan argued that the medium through which information is delivered influences
society more than the content itself. The phrase “the medium is the message” means that
the characteristics of a medium (TV, smartphone, social media, books, etc.) shape how we
think, interact, and experience the world, regardless of the specific message being
communicated. The technology itself changes human behaviour.
Examples
● Television encourages passive viewing and visual thinking.
● Social media encourages short attention spans and constant interaction.
● Smartphones make communication immediate and constant.
➡️So according to McLuhan, the social effects of a medium are more important than the
information it carries.
Influence of the message vs. the medium
Message influence
● The content of what is being said persuades people.
● Focus is on arguments, information, or emotional appeal.
Medium influence
● The channel or technology used changes how people process information.
Examples
1. News about climate change
○ Message effect: The arguments and facts about climate change.
○ Medium effect: Seeing dramatic images on television may make it feel more
urgent than reading a newspaper article.
2. Political campaigns
○ Message effect: The political arguments.
○ Medium effect: Social media algorithms amplify emotional and polarizing
content.
3. Advertising
○ Message effect: The product benefits.
○ Medium effect: A TikTok video feels more authentic than a traditional TV
commercial.
,Extended cognition
Extended cognition is the idea that our thinking does not only happen in the brain but can
extend into tools and technologies we use.
Technology can become part of the cognitive system.
Examples:
● Smartphones act as external memory.
● GPS replaces spatial navigation skills.
● Search engines act as knowledge storage.
⚠️Connection to “the medium is the message”:
● Media technologies change how we think and remember.
● Therefore, the medium itself reshapes human cognition.
Fake news games and inoculation theory
● Inoculation theory works like a psychological vaccine against misinformation. It
exposes people to a weakened version of misinformation techniques, which helps
them resist manipulation later.
● Fake news games teach players how misinformation works by letting them create
fake news themselves.
Examples:
● Learning about clickbait
● Recognizing emotional manipulation
● Understanding fake experts
➡️Because players understand these techniques, they become more resistant to real
misinformation later.
Agenda-setting effect
The agenda-setting effect describes how media influence what people think about.
The media does not tell people what to think, but what to think about.
If the media repeatedly highlights a topic, people start to see it as important.
Example:
● If news constantly reports on immigration, people may perceive immigration as the
most important political issue, even if other issues affect them more.
➡️Media therefore set the public agenda.
, Narrative transportation
Narrative transportation occurs when people become mentally and emotionally immersed in
a story. When transported into a narrative:
● People identify with characters
● They lower their critical thinking
● They become more open to persuasion
Example: Product placement
● If a character in a movie drinks a specific soda, viewers may develop a positive
attitude toward the product.
● Because they are absorbed in the story, they do not critically evaluate the
advertising.
➡️Higher motivation to follow the story → stronger persuasion.
Confirmation Bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms
our existing beliefs, while ignoring or rejecting information that contradicts them.
➡️
People prefer information that fits their worldview.
Example:
Domain of media psychology: Mediated influence & attitude change
On social media, someone who believes vaccines are dangerous may:
● Follow anti-vaccine accounts
● Share posts confirming their beliefs
● Ignore scientific evidence
Algorithms on platforms like YouTube or Facebook often strengthen confirmation bias
by recommending similar content.
Self-Discrepancy Theory - E. Tory Higgins.
The theory states that people compare three versions of the self:
1. Actual self – who you are
2. Ideal self – who you want to be
3. Ought self – who you think you should be
➡️
When these differ, people experience negative emotions.
Example
Domain of media psychology: Mediated social comparison
Seeing perfect bodies on Instagram may create a gap between:
● actual self → normal body
● ideal self → influencer body
This discrepancy can lead to body dissatisfaction.
,Social Psychology
Learning goals lecture 8: Understanding Media
McLuhan: “The medium is the message”
Marshall McLuhan argued that the medium through which information is delivered influences
society more than the content itself. The phrase “the medium is the message” means that
the characteristics of a medium (TV, smartphone, social media, books, etc.) shape how we
think, interact, and experience the world, regardless of the specific message being
communicated. The technology itself changes human behaviour.
Examples
● Television encourages passive viewing and visual thinking.
● Social media encourages short attention spans and constant interaction.
● Smartphones make communication immediate and constant.
➡️So according to McLuhan, the social effects of a medium are more important than the
information it carries.
Influence of the message vs. the medium
Message influence
● The content of what is being said persuades people.
● Focus is on arguments, information, or emotional appeal.
Medium influence
● The channel or technology used changes how people process information.
Examples
1. News about climate change
○ Message effect: The arguments and facts about climate change.
○ Medium effect: Seeing dramatic images on television may make it feel more
urgent than reading a newspaper article.
2. Political campaigns
○ Message effect: The political arguments.
○ Medium effect: Social media algorithms amplify emotional and polarizing
content.
3. Advertising
○ Message effect: The product benefits.
○ Medium effect: A TikTok video feels more authentic than a traditional TV
commercial.
,Extended cognition
Extended cognition is the idea that our thinking does not only happen in the brain but can
extend into tools and technologies we use.
Technology can become part of the cognitive system.
Examples:
● Smartphones act as external memory.
● GPS replaces spatial navigation skills.
● Search engines act as knowledge storage.
⚠️Connection to “the medium is the message”:
● Media technologies change how we think and remember.
● Therefore, the medium itself reshapes human cognition.
Fake news games and inoculation theory
● Inoculation theory works like a psychological vaccine against misinformation. It
exposes people to a weakened version of misinformation techniques, which helps
them resist manipulation later.
● Fake news games teach players how misinformation works by letting them create
fake news themselves.
Examples:
● Learning about clickbait
● Recognizing emotional manipulation
● Understanding fake experts
➡️Because players understand these techniques, they become more resistant to real
misinformation later.
Agenda-setting effect
The agenda-setting effect describes how media influence what people think about.
The media does not tell people what to think, but what to think about.
If the media repeatedly highlights a topic, people start to see it as important.
Example:
● If news constantly reports on immigration, people may perceive immigration as the
most important political issue, even if other issues affect them more.
➡️Media therefore set the public agenda.
, Narrative transportation
Narrative transportation occurs when people become mentally and emotionally immersed in
a story. When transported into a narrative:
● People identify with characters
● They lower their critical thinking
● They become more open to persuasion
Example: Product placement
● If a character in a movie drinks a specific soda, viewers may develop a positive
attitude toward the product.
● Because they are absorbed in the story, they do not critically evaluate the
advertising.
➡️Higher motivation to follow the story → stronger persuasion.
Confirmation Bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms
our existing beliefs, while ignoring or rejecting information that contradicts them.
➡️
People prefer information that fits their worldview.
Example:
Domain of media psychology: Mediated influence & attitude change
On social media, someone who believes vaccines are dangerous may:
● Follow anti-vaccine accounts
● Share posts confirming their beliefs
● Ignore scientific evidence
Algorithms on platforms like YouTube or Facebook often strengthen confirmation bias
by recommending similar content.
Self-Discrepancy Theory - E. Tory Higgins.
The theory states that people compare three versions of the self:
1. Actual self – who you are
2. Ideal self – who you want to be
3. Ought self – who you think you should be
➡️
When these differ, people experience negative emotions.
Example
Domain of media psychology: Mediated social comparison
Seeing perfect bodies on Instagram may create a gap between:
● actual self → normal body
● ideal self → influencer body
This discrepancy can lead to body dissatisfaction.
