WGU D312 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE SET EXAM 2026

WGU D312 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE SET EXAM 2026 Ligaments - -connect bone to bone Tendons - -connect muscle to bone Ethmoid bone - -part of floor of cranial cavity, separates nasal cavity from the brain Sphenoid bone - -roof of nasal cavity Maxillae - -forms upper jaw Mandible - -forms lower jaw Palatine bones - -posterior hard palate Zygomatic bone - -cheek structure Antagonist of pectoralis major - -deltoid (shoulder flexion/extension) Antagonist of biceps brachii - -triceps brachii (elbow flexion/extension) Antagonist of flexor carpi radialis - -extensor carpi radialis (wrist flexion/extension) Antagonist of flexor digitorum profundus - -extensor digitorum (finger flexion/extension) Antagonist of illiopsoas - -gluteus maximus (hip flexion/extension) Antagonist of hamstring - -quadriceps (knee flexion/extension) Antagonist of tibialis anterior - -gastocnemius/soleus (ankle flexion/extension) Microglia - -immune cells of the nervous system, tag foreign invaders and label them for destruction WGU D312 WGU D312 WGU D312 Astrocytes - -support cells of CNS, allow selective permeability at the BBB. Source of neural stem cells. Ependymal cells - -line ventricles, create barriers between compartments Oligodendrocytes - -forms myelin sheath in CNS to increase speed of conduction Satellite cells - -protection/support of PNS cells Schwann cells - -form myelin sheath in the PNS. Meninges - -multiple layers of protective connective tissue: dura mater (thickest and outer), arachnoid mater (cushion), pia mater (thin membrane hugs brain). Pons - -relays signal between cerebrum and cerebellum including sleep, hearing, taste and posture. Cerebellum - -controls movement, balance, coordination, tactile perception, scheduling/planning of tasks. Cerebrum - -major anatomical feature of brain, broken down into 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal) Medulla oblongata - -control of basic functions of cardiac, vasomotor and respiratory centers. Involuntary functions like coughing, salivating, sweating and gi secretions. Thalamus - -release of sensory signals, memory and emotion. Hypothalamus - -controls endocrine system, thermoregulation, food/water intake, biological cycles and emotions. Brainstem - -connects brain to spinal cord, regulates heartbeat and respirations. Olfactory nerve - -smell Optic nerve - -sight, processing of sensory information Oculomotor nerve - -motor movement of eye, smooth muscle control of pupil/lens Trochlear nerve - -motor movement of eye Trigeminal nerve - -sensory nerve for upper/mid face and upper jaw. Motor nerve for muscles of chewing. Abducens nerve - -motor eye movements along the horizontal plane. WGU D312 WGU D312 Facial nerve - -motor facial expressions/tears/salivary glands. Sensory for taste. Vestibulocochlear nerve - -sensory - hearing and equilibrium. Glossopharyngeal - -swallowing, regulation of blood pressure. Sensory for tongue, pharynx and outer eat. Vagus - -swallowing, speech, cardiovascular and digestive regulation, hunger and fullness. Sensory from visceral organs and taste. Accessory nerve - -swallowing, head, neck and shoulder movement. Hypoglossal nerve - -tongue movement Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary - -adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), TSH, FSH, LH, growth hormone, prolactin Hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary - -does not produce hormones but stores adh and oxytocin from the hypothalamus & releases when signalled Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - -stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids (cortisol) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) - -stimulates the thyroid to release t3 & t4 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - -stimulates follicle maturation in the ovaries and spermatogenesis in the testes Luteinizing hormone (LH) - -stimulates estrogen and testosterone production. Growth hormone - -stimulates protein production for growth. Prolactin - -stimulates mammary glands to promote milk. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH ASA vasopressin) - -promotes reabsorption of water by the kidneys and blood vessel constriction. Stimulated by dehydration and hypotension. Oxytocin - -stimulates uterine contraction during labor. Thyroxine (t4) and triiodothyronine (T3) - -increase metabolic rate Calcitonin - -decreases blood calcium levels by increasing calcium excretion in the urine and suppressing osteoclast activity in the bone. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - -stimulates release of calcium from bone and absorption of calcium in the small intestine/kidneys to increase blood calcium levels. WGU D312 WGU D312 Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex - -mineralcorticoids, glucocorticoids and androgens Mineralcorticoids - -control sodium and water balance Glucocorticoids - -cortisol, regulates metabolism and inflammation. Androgens - -testosterone, estrogen, progesterone - nutrient processing and secondary sex characterisitcs. Hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla - -chromaffin cells release catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) Hormones secreted by the pancreas - -insulin (produced by beta cells to lower blood glucose) & glucagon (produced by alpha cells to raise blood glucose) Hormones secreted by the ovaries - -estrogen (secondary sex characteristics, menstrual cycle, prepare for childbirth) & progesterone (uterus thickening, menstrual cycle, childbirth) Hormone secreted by the pineal gland - -melatonin - regulates sleep/wake cycle