Inhoudsopgave
Chapter 1: Introducing cognitive neuroscience................................................2
Chapter 2: Introducing the brain.....................................................................6
Chapter 3: The electrophysiological brain......................................................10
Chapter 4: The imaged brain.........................................................................14
Chapter 7: The seeing brain..........................................................................20
Chapter 5: The lesioned brain and stimulated brain Page:113-124..................26
Chapter 9: The attending brain Page 223-237................................................29
Chapter 15: The conscious brain...................................................................32
Chapter 11: The remembering brain..............................................................39
Gazzaniga, Ivry & Mangun (2019). Hoofdstuk 11, Language...........................45
Chapter 16: The social and emotional brain...................................................53
,Chapter 1: Introducing cognitive
neuroscience
Cognition = a variety of higher mental processes such as thinking, perceiving, imagining,
speaking, acting, and planning.
Cognitive neuroscience = bridging discipline between cognitive science and cognitive
psychology, on the one hand, and biology and neuroscience, on the other, aiming to explain
cognitive processes in terms of brain-based mechanisms.
Cognitive neuroscience in historical perspective
Philosophical approaches to mind and brain: mind-body problem = problem of how a
physical substance (the brain) can give rise to our sensations, thoughts, and emotions (mind).
Although this should now be called the mind-brain problem, because the brain is the key part
of the body for cognition.
- Dualism = the belief that mind and brain are made up of different kinds of substances
René Descartes
- Dual-aspect theory = the belief that mind and brain are two levels of description of
the same thing Spinoza
- Reductionism = the belief that mind-based concepts (emotions, memories, attention)
will eventually be replaced by neuroscientific concepts (patterns of neuronal firings,
neurotransmitter release) psychology will eventually reduce to biology as we learn
more about the brain
Scientific approaches to mind and brain
- Phrenology = the failed idea that individual differences in cognition can be mapped
onto differences in skull shape
- Functional specialization = different regions of the brain are specialized for different
functions
- Cognitive neuropsychology = the study of brain-damaged patients to inform theories
of normal cognition
- Information-processing approach = behavior is described in terms of a sequence of
cognitive stages
The idea of the mind as a computer program has advanced over the years along with advances
in computational science. Many cognitive models contain some element of:
- Interactivity = later stages of processing can begin before earlier stages are complete
o Top-down processing = later stages can influence the outcome of early ones
o Bottom-up processing = earlier stages can influence the outcome of later
stages
- Parallel processing = different information is processed at the same time
Fodor’s theory of modulatiry = the notion that there are two different classes of cognitive
process: central systems and modules, and the key difference between them relates to the
types of information they can process:
- Modules demonstrate domain specificity = they process only one particular type of
information (color, shape, words, faces)
- Central systems are domain independent and process nonspecific information
(memory, attention, executive functions)
The birth of cognitive neuroscience
,The distinction between recording methods and stimulation methods is crucial in cognitive
neuroscience – modern-day studies use stimulation across the skull rather than directly to the
brain:
- Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
- Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES)
Electrophysiological methods (EEG, ERP) and magnetophysiological methods (MEG)
record the electrical and magnetic properties of neurons themselves.
Functional imaging methods (PET, fMRI, and fNIRS) record physiological changes
associated with blood supply to the brain, which evolve more slowly over time =
hemodynamic methods.
Temporal resolution = the accuracy with which one can measure when an event is occurring:
- EEG, MEG, TMS, and single- and multi-cell recording have millisecond resolution,
so they have a high temporal resolution
- fMRI has a several second resolution, reflecting the slower hemodynamic response,
and so this has a low temporal resolution
spatial resolution = the accuracy with which one can measure where an event is occurring:
- lesions and functional imaging methods have millimeter resolutions, so they have a
high spatial resolution
- single-cell recordings have spatial resolution at the level of the neuron, so an even
higher spatial resolution
- MEG & ERP have a low spatial resolution
Invasiveness = whether the equipment is located internally or externally:
- Pet is invasive, because it requires an injection of a radio-labeled isotope
- Single-cell recordings are performed on the brain itself and are normally only carried
out in nonhuman animals
Method Method type Invasiveness Brain property used
EEG/ERP Recording Non-invasive Electrical
Single-cell recordings Recording Invasive Electrical
TMS Stimulation Non-invasive Electromagnetic
tDCS Stimulation Non-invasive Electrical
MEG Recording Non-invasive Magnetic
PET Recording Invasive Hemodynamic
fMRI Recording Non-invasive Hemodynamic
fNIRS Recording Non-invasive Hemodynamic
EEG = electroencephalography
ERP = event-related potentional
TMS = transmagnatic stimulation
tDCS = transcranial direct-current stimulation
MEG = magnetoencephalography
PET = positron emission tomography
fMRI = functional magnetic resonance imaging
fNIRS = functional near-infrared spectroscopy
cognitive psychology may be sufficient to tell us the structure of information processing, but
it may not answer deeper questions about why information processing should be configured in
that particular way. The biological constraints imposed by the brain shape the nature and
limitations of cognition.
, Does cognitive psychology need the brain?
Cognitive psychology may be sufficient to tell us the structure of information processing, but
it may not answer deeper questions about why information processing should be configured in
that particular way. The biological constraints imposed by the brain shape the nature and
limitations of cognition.
Does neuroscience need cognitive psychology?
One reason why phrenology failed is because the method had no real scientific grounding, the
same cannot be said of functional imaging. Another reason why it failed was that the
psychological concepts used were naïve. For this reason: the functional imaging and other
advances in neuroscience needs the insights from cognitive psychology to frame appropriate
research questions and avoid becoming a new phrenology. Cognitive, mind-based concepts
have an essential role to play in cognitive neuroscience.
The future of cognitive neuroscience
Two shifts within the field:
- One theoretical = greater focus on understanding the mind and brain as a network
- One more practical = a shift towards big data and more synthesizing approaches (such
as meta-analyses) that are motivated by a desire to protect future cognitive
neuroscience research from the so-called replication crisis = systemic difficulties in
being able to independently reproduce published results that have been documented in
many scientific fields
o Multiverse analysis = performing multiple analyses of the same dataset across
all reasonable options for excluding, transforming, and coding data
o HARKing = hypothesizing after the results are known
o Pre-registration = an open set of hypotheses and analysis plan, that is posted
prior to conducting the analysis
o P-hacking = analyzing the data in multiple ways and chosen to publish a
single favorable analysis
o File-drawer problem = the tendency for non-significant results to be
unpublished
From module to network = a dynamically changing pattern of activity over several brain
regions. Rather than thinking of the brain as a single network, there might be different
networks which are switched on or off depending on the kind of thought or behavior is
needed.
Not only do brain regions have a degree of functional specialization, but entire networks may
also have some specializations
- Connectome = a map of neural connections in the brain that may be thought of as its
“wiring diagram”
It is important to approach research findings with a healthy skepticism but not to be overly
dismissive of variability in findings. Some variability is to be expected and can occur for
interesting reasons. There is now a strong consensus on best practice including more
transparency, prior to analysis, and data sharing and pooling.
Summary and key points
- The mind-body problem refers to the question of how physical matter (the brain) can
produce mental experiences, and this remains an enduring issue in cognitive
neuroscience
Chapter 1: Introducing cognitive neuroscience................................................2
Chapter 2: Introducing the brain.....................................................................6
Chapter 3: The electrophysiological brain......................................................10
Chapter 4: The imaged brain.........................................................................14
Chapter 7: The seeing brain..........................................................................20
Chapter 5: The lesioned brain and stimulated brain Page:113-124..................26
Chapter 9: The attending brain Page 223-237................................................29
Chapter 15: The conscious brain...................................................................32
Chapter 11: The remembering brain..............................................................39
Gazzaniga, Ivry & Mangun (2019). Hoofdstuk 11, Language...........................45
Chapter 16: The social and emotional brain...................................................53
,Chapter 1: Introducing cognitive
neuroscience
Cognition = a variety of higher mental processes such as thinking, perceiving, imagining,
speaking, acting, and planning.
Cognitive neuroscience = bridging discipline between cognitive science and cognitive
psychology, on the one hand, and biology and neuroscience, on the other, aiming to explain
cognitive processes in terms of brain-based mechanisms.
Cognitive neuroscience in historical perspective
Philosophical approaches to mind and brain: mind-body problem = problem of how a
physical substance (the brain) can give rise to our sensations, thoughts, and emotions (mind).
Although this should now be called the mind-brain problem, because the brain is the key part
of the body for cognition.
- Dualism = the belief that mind and brain are made up of different kinds of substances
René Descartes
- Dual-aspect theory = the belief that mind and brain are two levels of description of
the same thing Spinoza
- Reductionism = the belief that mind-based concepts (emotions, memories, attention)
will eventually be replaced by neuroscientific concepts (patterns of neuronal firings,
neurotransmitter release) psychology will eventually reduce to biology as we learn
more about the brain
Scientific approaches to mind and brain
- Phrenology = the failed idea that individual differences in cognition can be mapped
onto differences in skull shape
- Functional specialization = different regions of the brain are specialized for different
functions
- Cognitive neuropsychology = the study of brain-damaged patients to inform theories
of normal cognition
- Information-processing approach = behavior is described in terms of a sequence of
cognitive stages
The idea of the mind as a computer program has advanced over the years along with advances
in computational science. Many cognitive models contain some element of:
- Interactivity = later stages of processing can begin before earlier stages are complete
o Top-down processing = later stages can influence the outcome of early ones
o Bottom-up processing = earlier stages can influence the outcome of later
stages
- Parallel processing = different information is processed at the same time
Fodor’s theory of modulatiry = the notion that there are two different classes of cognitive
process: central systems and modules, and the key difference between them relates to the
types of information they can process:
- Modules demonstrate domain specificity = they process only one particular type of
information (color, shape, words, faces)
- Central systems are domain independent and process nonspecific information
(memory, attention, executive functions)
The birth of cognitive neuroscience
,The distinction between recording methods and stimulation methods is crucial in cognitive
neuroscience – modern-day studies use stimulation across the skull rather than directly to the
brain:
- Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
- Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES)
Electrophysiological methods (EEG, ERP) and magnetophysiological methods (MEG)
record the electrical and magnetic properties of neurons themselves.
Functional imaging methods (PET, fMRI, and fNIRS) record physiological changes
associated with blood supply to the brain, which evolve more slowly over time =
hemodynamic methods.
Temporal resolution = the accuracy with which one can measure when an event is occurring:
- EEG, MEG, TMS, and single- and multi-cell recording have millisecond resolution,
so they have a high temporal resolution
- fMRI has a several second resolution, reflecting the slower hemodynamic response,
and so this has a low temporal resolution
spatial resolution = the accuracy with which one can measure where an event is occurring:
- lesions and functional imaging methods have millimeter resolutions, so they have a
high spatial resolution
- single-cell recordings have spatial resolution at the level of the neuron, so an even
higher spatial resolution
- MEG & ERP have a low spatial resolution
Invasiveness = whether the equipment is located internally or externally:
- Pet is invasive, because it requires an injection of a radio-labeled isotope
- Single-cell recordings are performed on the brain itself and are normally only carried
out in nonhuman animals
Method Method type Invasiveness Brain property used
EEG/ERP Recording Non-invasive Electrical
Single-cell recordings Recording Invasive Electrical
TMS Stimulation Non-invasive Electromagnetic
tDCS Stimulation Non-invasive Electrical
MEG Recording Non-invasive Magnetic
PET Recording Invasive Hemodynamic
fMRI Recording Non-invasive Hemodynamic
fNIRS Recording Non-invasive Hemodynamic
EEG = electroencephalography
ERP = event-related potentional
TMS = transmagnatic stimulation
tDCS = transcranial direct-current stimulation
MEG = magnetoencephalography
PET = positron emission tomography
fMRI = functional magnetic resonance imaging
fNIRS = functional near-infrared spectroscopy
cognitive psychology may be sufficient to tell us the structure of information processing, but
it may not answer deeper questions about why information processing should be configured in
that particular way. The biological constraints imposed by the brain shape the nature and
limitations of cognition.
, Does cognitive psychology need the brain?
Cognitive psychology may be sufficient to tell us the structure of information processing, but
it may not answer deeper questions about why information processing should be configured in
that particular way. The biological constraints imposed by the brain shape the nature and
limitations of cognition.
Does neuroscience need cognitive psychology?
One reason why phrenology failed is because the method had no real scientific grounding, the
same cannot be said of functional imaging. Another reason why it failed was that the
psychological concepts used were naïve. For this reason: the functional imaging and other
advances in neuroscience needs the insights from cognitive psychology to frame appropriate
research questions and avoid becoming a new phrenology. Cognitive, mind-based concepts
have an essential role to play in cognitive neuroscience.
The future of cognitive neuroscience
Two shifts within the field:
- One theoretical = greater focus on understanding the mind and brain as a network
- One more practical = a shift towards big data and more synthesizing approaches (such
as meta-analyses) that are motivated by a desire to protect future cognitive
neuroscience research from the so-called replication crisis = systemic difficulties in
being able to independently reproduce published results that have been documented in
many scientific fields
o Multiverse analysis = performing multiple analyses of the same dataset across
all reasonable options for excluding, transforming, and coding data
o HARKing = hypothesizing after the results are known
o Pre-registration = an open set of hypotheses and analysis plan, that is posted
prior to conducting the analysis
o P-hacking = analyzing the data in multiple ways and chosen to publish a
single favorable analysis
o File-drawer problem = the tendency for non-significant results to be
unpublished
From module to network = a dynamically changing pattern of activity over several brain
regions. Rather than thinking of the brain as a single network, there might be different
networks which are switched on or off depending on the kind of thought or behavior is
needed.
Not only do brain regions have a degree of functional specialization, but entire networks may
also have some specializations
- Connectome = a map of neural connections in the brain that may be thought of as its
“wiring diagram”
It is important to approach research findings with a healthy skepticism but not to be overly
dismissive of variability in findings. Some variability is to be expected and can occur for
interesting reasons. There is now a strong consensus on best practice including more
transparency, prior to analysis, and data sharing and pooling.
Summary and key points
- The mind-body problem refers to the question of how physical matter (the brain) can
produce mental experiences, and this remains an enduring issue in cognitive
neuroscience
