Criminology Unit 1.1 Comprehensive Practice Exam - 2025 Edition | Verified Answers | Graded A+ | Latest Release | 100% Accurate & Trusted

Criminology Unit 1.1 Comprehensive Practice Exam - 2025 Edition | Verified Answers | Graded A+ | Latest Release | 100% Accurate & Trusted What are the key theoretical perspectives that explain the causes of crime, and how do they differ in terms of the social, biological, and psychological factors they emphasize? Sociological theories focus on societal influences such as poverty and social structures, biological theories emphasize genetic predispositions or neurological factors, while psychological theories investigate individual mental processes and behavior patterns. How does the concept of social control theory explain criminal behavior, and what are the key factors that prevent individuals from engaging in criminal acts? Social control theory argues that crime occurs when an individual’s bond to society is weakened; key factors include attachment to others, commitment to societal norms, involvement in conventional activities, and belief in societal rules. Discuss the relationship between strain theory and deviant behavior. How do individuals cope with societal strain according to Robert Merton’s framework? Strain theory suggests that crime is a result of the strain individuals experience when they cannot achieve societal goals through legitimate means. People cope with strain through conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, or rebellion. How does the conflict theory approach crime, and why do conflict theorists view the legal system as an instrument of social control for the ruling class? Conflict theory argues that crime is a result of societal inequalities and that the legal system is used by the powerful to control the lower classes and maintain their dominance, often criminalizing behaviors that threaten their interests. Analyze the role of labeling theory in understanding criminal behavior. How do labels assigned to individuals contribute to the continuation of criminality? 1 Labeling theory suggests that when individuals are labeled as criminals, they internalize this label, which can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, making them more likely to engage in further criminal behavior due to societal expectations and stigma. What are the main differences between classical and positivist criminology in terms of their assumptions about human nature and criminal responsibility? Classical criminology assumes that individuals have free will and choose to commit crimes based on rational calculation, while positivist criminology focuses on external factors (such as biology, environment, or psychology) that influence behavior, often suggesting that criminals are not entirely responsible for their actions. How does routine activities theory explain the occurrence of crime, and what are the necessary elements for a crime to take place according to this theory? Routine activities theory posits that crime occurs when a motivated offender comes into contact with a suitable target without capable guardianship. The three elements required are a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of capable guardianship. In what ways do critical criminologists challenge traditional views of crime and justice? Discuss their critique of the mainstream criminological theories. Critical criminologists argue that mainstream theories overlook the role of power and inequality in shaping crime and justice. They critique traditional theories for ignoring the ways in which the legal system and social structures protect the interests of the wealthy and powerful. What is the concept of “dark figure of crime,” and how does it challenge the accuracy of crime statistics and criminal justice policy? The dark figure of crime refers to the crimes that go unreported or undetected, which challenges the accuracy of crime statistics. This unreported crime can lead to inaccurate criminal justice policies and an underestimation of the true crime rate. How does the concept of differential association theory explain the learning of criminal behavior? Differential association theory suggests that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others. The frequency, duration, and intensity of interactions with people who promote criminal behavior influence an individual’s likelihood of adopting criminal behavior themselves. 2 Discuss how feminist criminology addresses the gendered nature of crime and victimization, and how it critiques traditional criminology. Feminist criminology highlights the gender biases in traditional criminology, arguing that women's experiences of crime and victimization are often overlooked. It emphasizes how patriarchy and gender inequality contribute to both the commission of crime and the victimization of women. How does the concept of “broken windows theory” explain the relationship between minor offenses and more serious criminal activity in urban areas? Broken windows theory suggests that visible signs of disorder, such as vandalism or minor crimes, create an environment that encourages more serious crimes. The theory posits that maintaining order in neighborhoods can prevent the escalation of crime. What role does the concept of “social disorganization theory” play in understanding crime in urban communities? Social disorganization theory argues that crime is more likely to occur in communities with weak social institutions, lack of community involvement, and high levels of poverty and residential mobility, which erode the ability to maintain social order. Explain the concept of “criminogenic environment” and how environmental factors contribute to criminal behavior. A criminogenic environment refers to an environment that encourages or facilitates criminal behavior. Factors such as poverty, lack of education, limited social mobility, and inadequate social controls can contribute to the development of criminal behavior in individuals. What are the implications of biological theories of crime for criminal justice policies, particularly with regard to rehabilitation and prevention? Biological theories suggest that genetic, neurological, or hormonal factors can predispose individuals to criminal behavior. This can lead to policies focused on early intervention, treatment, and rehabilitation aimed at addressing these biological factors. How does the concept of “strain theory” relate to youth gangs and juvenile delinquency? Strain theory suggests that youth gangs and delinquency arise when young people experience strain due to a lack of access to legitimate means to achieve societal goals, such as success or wealth, and resort to delinquent behavior as a way to cope with these frustrations. 3 What are the main critiques of deterrence theory in relation to its effectiveness in reducing crime? Critics argue that deterrence theory is ineffective because it assumes individuals make rational decisions based on the threat of punishment, but ignores factors like impulse, lack of resources, and psychological issues that may drive criminal behavior. Discuss the concept of "neutralization theory" and how it explains why some individuals commit crimes despite knowing the actions are wrong. Neutralization theory posits that individuals rationalize their criminal behavior through techniques such as denial of responsibility, denial of injury, or condemnation of the condemners, which allow them to temporarily neutralize guilt and commit crimes without feeling morally conflicted. How do biosocial criminologists explain the interaction between genetic factors and environmental influences in the development of criminal behavior? Biosocial criminologists believe that both genetic predispositions and environmental factors interact to influence an individual’s likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior. They argue that genetic factors may make individuals more susceptible to certain behaviors, but environmental influences ultimately shape whether these tendencies are expressed. How does the concept of “Victimology” expand the study of criminology beyond the offender to include the victim’s role in the criminal justice process? Victimology focuses on the study of victims and their role in the criminal justice process. It examines factors like victimization patterns, the psychological impact on victims, and how the criminal justice system responds to victims, highlighting their importance in understanding crime dynamics. What are the challenges in applying criminological theories across different cultures, and how do cultural differences influence crime and its prevention? Criminological theories may not apply universally because cultural norms, values, and social structures vary greatly across societies. Cultural differences influence crime rates, types of crime, and attitudes toward criminal justice, requiring a contextualized approach to crime prevention and theory application. How does the routine activities theory apply to cybercrime, and what factors make cybercrime unique compared to traditional forms of crime? 4 Routine activities theory can be applied to cybercrime by focusing on the availability of targets (e.g., unprotected networks) and the lack of capable guardianship (e.g., insufficient security measures). Cybercrime is unique due to its anonymity, global reach, and low risk of detection. In what ways does the concept of “critical race theory” challenge traditional understandings of crime and punishment, particularly in relation to race and the criminal justice system? Critical race theory argues that race is a central factor in understanding crime and punishment, emphasizing how racial disparities in the criminal justice system reflect broader societal inequalities and the ways in which the system criminalizes people of color. What is the significance of “white-collar crime” in criminology, and how does it differ from traditional forms of crime in terms of both the offenders and their impact on society? White-collar crime refers to non-violent crimes typically committed by individuals in positions of power or trust, such as fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading. It differs from traditional crimes in that the offenders are often educated professionals, and the impact is often economic rather than physical. How do victimless crimes, such as drug use or prostitution, challenge the role of the criminal justice system, and what are the ethical implications of criminalizing such behaviors? Victimless crimes challenge the criminal justice system by questioning whether certain behaviors, which may only harm the individual involved, should be regulated or punished by the state. Ethical concerns center on individual autonomy versus societal protection and the potential for unnecessary harm caused by criminalization. Discuss how the rise of surveillance technology impacts crime prevention, and what concerns arise regarding privacy and civil liberties. Surveillance technology can deter crime by increasing the likelihood of detection, but it raises concerns about privacy violations, government overreach, and the potential for abuse. Striking a balance between security and individual freedoms is a key challenge in modern criminology. How does the concept of "criminological positivism" differ from its classical counterpart in terms of the approach to crime prevention and the treatment of offenders? Criminological positivism focuses on identifying and addressing the causes of criminal behavior through scientific methods, often advocating for rehabilitation over punishment. Classical criminology, by contrast, emphasizes punishment as a deterrent and assumes criminals are rational decision-makers. 5 How do situational crime prevention strategies differ from social crime prevention strategies, and which is more effective in addressing specific types of crime? Situational crime prevention focuses on reducing opportunities for crime through environmental design and security measures, while social crime prevention targets the root causes of crime, such as poverty and lack of education. The effectiveness of each strategy depends on the type of crime being addressed. What is the role of criminal justice professionals in preventing wrongful convictions, and how can the justice system improve its ability to protect innocent individuals? Criminal justice professionals can prevent wrongful convictions by ensuring thorough investigations, avoiding confirmation bias, and advocating for the use of reliable evidence. The justice system can improve through reforms such as better training, increased use of DNA testing, and oversight mechanisms to protect against miscarriages of justice. How does the social constructionist approach to crime challenge traditional definitions of criminal behavior, and what implications does this have for lawmaking and crime control? Social constructionism suggests that crime is not an objective reality but a social construct, meaning that what is defined as criminal behavior is shaped by societal values, power dynamics, and political processes. This challenges fixed definitions of crime and suggests that laws may be influenced by social and political factors rather than objective harm. Crime An action or omission which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law. *Crime varies dependent on time, place and culture. Mark band 2 *offender. *victim. *Public awareness. *Case study. *Brief. Deviance *definition. Any behaviour or offence that violates social or cultural norms or accepted standards. 6 *Different countries and cultures have different values so what is considered deviant varies from place to place. White collar crime Edwin Sutherland (1949): 'a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation'. *Sutherland's aim was to challenge the stereotype that crime is purely a lower-class phenomenon. White-collar crimes are generally non-violent crimes usually committed in commercial situations for f inancial gain. *Examples of white-collar crimes: computer + internet fraud, credit card fraud, tax evasion. *Organised white collar crime can concentrate on protection rackets but also involves illegal gambling and prostitution. Protection rackets A scheme where a group provides protection to businesses + other groups through violence outside the sanction of the law. Through the threat of violence, the racketeers deter people from swindling, robbing, injuries, sabotaging or harming the clients. Types of victim - white collar People who have funds to invest in a financial scheme e.g. recently retired workers. Often people are recruited by friends or acquaintances, this is often the case in Ponzi schemes (fraudulent investment scams promising high rates of return with little risk to investors, however no profit is actually made for investors, instead returns are funded by money from new investors as the offender keeps the initial investment for their own use. Types of offender - white collar Usually people of respectability and high social status who are trusted by their victims. They often work in commercial employment (hence the reference to wearing white-collared shirt and tie). Offenders can also involve organised groups such as the Mafia (Italy USA), triads (China), Yakuza (Japan) as well as organised crime gangs in Eastern Europe and the UK. Level of public awareness - white collar White collar crime doesn't make the headlines. Offenders use money to manipulate media and legal teams. Victims don't know what it is. *Often offenders aren't convicted as they have the money and status to bribe media and victims. They are beneficial to the state. The process of investigating is difficult. They are often covered up. Moral crimes *Prostitution. Crimes against the normal standard of morality within society: 7 *Vagrancy - homelessness. *Under-age drinking. *Assisted suicide. *Illegal gambling - illegal if underage/underground betting. *Illegal drug use - illegal if not your prescription. Types of victim - Moral crimes Moral crimes are thought to be victimless. *However homeless people don't have a support system. They are victims of mental health, drug abuses and being in care. The offender is the victim - this lifestyle is not a choice. Bernie Madoff *He did the biggest Ponzi scheme of all time. *He was investing for nearly 50 years. *He was charismatic, had status and has a respectable reputation. *He faked reports. *The invested money went into bank accounts. *He was offering 10-12% returns. *There were 37000 victims such as Kevin bacon. *In 2008, the stock market was down and investors pulled money. *He was giving more money than what he was getting back. *The FBI didn't consider him. *He got 150 years in prison. *His two sons told the police. *His family are victims. *His investors lost everything and some killed themselves. Prostitution - sex trafficking it. *Became an offender because she loves sex and wants to get paid for *The 'Pimp' is included in the crime. *A family is a pink and 5-7 girls. 8 *Girls begin this lifestyle at 12. *The life is exciting. *Pimps can become obsessed with the best paying girl. *Savannah was 16 and at a party intoxicated, Ricopimpin took her to a hotel and told her the job she would be doing. *Savannah did her first job at 16 and did 5-6 guys in the first night. Her next pimp trafficked her. *Prostitutes are viewed as victims of the traffickers. *Repeat prostitute offenders face 2 years in prison. *There is a sense of loyalty to the pimp. *Nicky led a normal life for 30 years. *The pimp beats them if they don't make money. *A pimp got 42 years in prison for trafficking a 15 year old. *Recovery often takes months. *If they leave they pimp they will have no money. *There is a need to feel valued as they girls are vulnerable. *The girls are scared of the pimps and often lack father figures/family. *One girl was molested so had no other options. Moral crimes - types of offender *A lack of choice as often forced into it. *Some people - it is a choice. *Turn to crime to make money. *Lack if educational/job opportunities. *Poor quality of life. *Underage drinking is normalised. *Lack of support/no safety net. *Sex trafficking. *Cycle of criminality. The offender is vulnerable and feels like they have no other options. 9 Moral crimes - level of public awareness This is often low as many of the offences are hidden from the offenders families. These types of crime are often ignored by the public as they feel sympathy for the victims and therefore lack the desire to report them to the police. The public many not realise behaviours such as vagrancy are illegal. State crime State crimes are activities perpetrated by or by order of state agencies such as governments that commit crimes in order to further their policies: Genocide. War crimes. Torture. Imprisonment without trial. Often such crimes are in breach of articles from the European convention of human rights (ECHR- a treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms on Europe) such as Article 2- a right to life of Article 3- freedom from torture and inhuman destruction treatment. State crimes - type of victim Victims of state crimes are citizens of the country or those of a different religion or political view than the government. State crimes - type of offender regime: Usually high ranking officials under the orders of the country *Nazi Germany during the Holocaust- over 6 million dead. *Idi Amin's Uganda in the 1970's - 500,000. *Bosnia in the early 1990's - 30000. *Rwanda in 1994 - 1,070,014 in 100 days. Genocide religious group. Any action with the intention to destroy in whole or in part a national, ethnic or State crimes - level of public awareness There is more media coverage on smartphones which have news apps and social media. Previously public awareness was low but now investigative journalism has increased. 10 Rwandan Genocide *The government told the Hutus to overthrow the Tutsis. *A group of Tutsis formed a rebel group which was the Rwandan Patriotic Front (PRF). *This began on 6th April 1994. *It lasted 100 days and ended in July 1994. *Neighbours killed neighbours and Hutu husbands killed Tutsi wives. *1,070,014 people died. *The Rwandan President was killed and there was constant threat. Technological crimes Also known as cybercrime, technological crime is where the offence is committed using the internet or other technologies: *Internet-enables fraud. *Downloading illegal materials such as songs and images. *The use of social media to promote hate crimes. *Sextortion - sexual exploitation. In Manila online sexual blackmail is on the increase. Men fake female accounts to blackmail men for money. Most victims are two embarrassed to come forward. These gangs are making millions. Starts with a friend request and the webcam chat is recorded. The women aren't real just pre-recorded victims. A man committed suicide due to the blackmail as they bullied him. Technological crimes - types of victim *Anyone with access to the internet. *Billion of people, a big victim pool. *Younger generation are more likely to be victims. Technological crimes - types of offender Anyone who has basic knowledge and access to the internet. Due to the impact of globalisation many offenders are often overseas with the technical ability to gain access to bank accounts, credit cards and personal information. Evidence gathered by the NCA (National Crime Agency) suggests there has been an increase in young offenders committing crimes to gain status amongst their peers. Technological crimes - level of public awareness Initially public awareness of these types of crimes were not high, however as technology improves and the internet becomes part of everyday life, the public are more aware of cybercrime due to increased media coverage. 11 Manila The police officers won't ask the children to do anything live. Children are sold for sex from age 5 to 12. *Philippines is a major source for child abuse. *Difficult because it's in a different country and has different laws and police. *Children suffer from PTSD. *There is a lack of evidence as they are children and don't speak out because the offenders are their family. *It becomes normalised. State crimes - offenders/victims Individual crimes - hate crimes The offenders are the state so the victims have no power. A hate crime is any crime that is perceived by the victim or any other person as being motivated by prejudice or hate based on a person's race, religious belief, sexual orientation, disability or if they are transgender. Any regular crime can be aggravated by having a hate element. E.g. if you were assaulted, the offender would be charged with assault and the court would be told of the motivation behind the crime. The hate element would be an aggravating factor and the punishment is likely to be higher. *Can include verbal abuse, intimidation, threats, harassment, assault, bullying as well as damage to property. *Can also see the offender exploiting a victim for financial gain or other criminal purpose. Individual crimes Mate crime Cuckooing The offender chooses a victim Individuals are abused or manipulated by pretending to be their friend. Offenders target vulnerable people to store drugs for them. Hate crimes - types of victim someone from those strands. Anyone who falls in the above strands or through association with 12 Gemma Hayter *2 got manslaughter. *3 got murder. *21 years to 13 years in prison. *Her body was found on a disused railway line. *Crimes against disabled people has risen by 300% since 2011. *She was viciously assaulted in Rugby. *They tortured her for hours. *She was stabbed, they stripped her naked and tried to set her alight. *She drowned of the blood from her nose. *She had learning difficulties and was vulnerable. *Five people stood trial. *The offenders treated it as a joke. *Gemma had no diagnosis so didn't get support. *Her situation was looked at 168 times. *At 24 she was signed out of the system. *The council put drug dealers and ex-prisoners in the flats. *She would buy them things. *The night before she went out to the pub with them. *She would steal for them. *She kept drugs such as cocaine for her friends. *Her killers befriended her. Orlando Pulse nightclub shooting *June 12 2016. *Omar Mateen a 29 year old security guard killed 49 people and wounded 63 others in a gay nightclub. *Officers shot and killed him after a three hour standoff. *He took people hostage in the bathroom. *He was on the Islamic state list. *IS have taken responsibility for the crime. *He could have been conflicted about being gay. 13 Hate crimes - types of offender Anyone holding some form of prejudicial view against someone falling under the five strands and tends to be people with traditional views differing from those of the victim. Hate crimes - level of public awareness public awareness has also grown. *Increased media focus on hate crimes has meant that *There has also been a number of legislation changes to attempt to deter individuals from committing hate crimes. *The Anti-terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 added to previous legislation ensuring c religiously aggravated offences had an increased sentencing element. *Fir example, assault is punishable with a maximum of six months in prison, however this is increased to two years if the assault is aggravated by a religious element. *The Crown Prosecution Service has also made changes, ordering a crackdown on social media hate crimes in August 2017. *These changes on legislation have further increased public awareness. Individual crimes - Honour crime have brought shame on their families: *Acid attacks. *Abductions. *Mutilations. *Beatings. *Murder. Honour crime - types of victim Honour crimes are punishments on people for acts deemed to Typically, the victim is a young girl within the family, commonly a daughter from an Asian community. Honour crime - types of offender uncle of the victim. Often a male member of the family, typically a father, brother or 14 Honour crime - level of public awareness Generally honour killings have low level public awareness due to the differences in culture. Within some communities where honour crime occurs, it is viewed as the appropriate retaliation to 'shameful' behaviour. As a result, it is not reported to the authorities, so the wider community remains unaware of honour crime. Individual crimes - domestic abuse Domestic abuse is any act targeted to be abuse against a partner of family member that happens within the home, often in secret. Domestic abuse can include physical violence: *Assault. *Murder. *Torture. *Verbal abuse. Domestic abuse - level of public awareness often low. Honour crime - Shafilea Ahmed a successful career. *She was torn between two cultures. Public awareness in the case of domestic violence is *Ambitions to break away from parents, go to university and forge *Her parents, an ultra-conservative Pakistani couple who were born in the rural village of Uttam in the Gujrat district, wanted her to marry a cousin in his late 20s, a decade older than their daughter, and become a devoted wife, possibly never to return to the UK. *The Ahmeds' bright and rebellious eldest girl had a desire to wear western clothes like her friends, have boyfriends she chose herself, and be free to hand around with whom she wanted. Tragically for her, the two cultures were on a collision course. In the lead up to her killing at 17, she was the victim of extreme violence at her parents' hands as she resisted their attempts to control her. *Shafilea repeatedly refused their calls for an arranged marriage and, in the eyes of her parents, thereby brought shame on the family. Her friendships with other boys meant she was effectively "damaged goods". As a cry for help she drank bleach in Pakistan- six months before her death on 11 September 2003. Her parents maintained that she had mistaken it for mouthwash. "A stupid and obvious lie" the prosecution retorted. *The violence carried out by her parents escalated in the months before her death and she was frequently held down and beaten by both of them. Her teenage years were punctuated by household chores late at night at the house in Warrington, Cheshire before she was allowed to begin her schoolwork. 15 *It was an appalling life but her parents were keen to keep up with the appearance of normality and to hid the abuse from the school, social services and police. If awkward questions were asked, the Ahmed's would claim they were victims of racial prejudice. *Ultimately, Shafilea was killed for her resistance. According to her sister Alesha's Samia Shahid - Honour crime Yorkshire. *On 11th September 2014, Samia got married in Bradford, West *In 2016 she was killed six days later. *She loves cars but her parents wouldn't let her drive. *Her family are from a village in a Pakistan but she was British. *Her family is well known in Bradford. *Everything was a secret from the family. *At 25, her parents arranged for her to marry her first cousin in Pakistan. *They paid for everything. *From her parents point of view they were doing the right thing. *Samia and her new husband (Shakeel) lived in the house her father built for her. *She became bitter towards her family. *She returned to the UK alone and said she wanted to die. *In October 2012 Samia met another man, Mukhtar she loved him. *Shakeel's visa for the UK was denied and he wouldn't divorce her. *Samia was granted a divorce by the imam from the Shariah law. *She got married to her boyfriend without her family knowing. *She was attacked with a metal bar. *Mukhtar returned to Dubai. *She reported everything to the police. *She was a prisoner in her home. *Her family found out she was married. *She went to Dubai with Mukhtar. *She wanted a family and children. *But she couldn't let go of her family. 16 *She wanted to ask for forgiveness from her family. *Her father wanted her husband to leave her. *September 2015 Samia visited Bradford to see her family. *She wanted to go to Pakistan as Shakeel's mother died. *She was getting emotional phone calls from her family. *Her dad was ill with diabetes. *She arrived on 14th July 2016 and stayed with a friend where she hid her id and return ticket. *Samias body was lying at the foot of the stairs in Pakistan. *Nobody had seen Shakeel since her death. *Her cousin said she had a heart attack. *The police felt an innocent girl had been killed in the name of honour. *Her friends went to the police stat domestic abuse - types of victim domestic abuse - types of offender Domestic abuse - Gale Marmoy (Dawn) anyone, male or female anyone, male or female *Worst injuries on a living person. *He put his knee on her ribs and broke them. *He punched her repeatedly and pulled out her hair due to false jealousy. *Michael John Gregory was the abuser. *She kept calm to keep him happy. *He was arrested twice in two days. *She wasn't allowed to collect post. *Had to ask to go to the toilet. *He would punch her if she answered the phone. *Private abusers: public charmers. *80 women killed in a year. *100,000 people at risk from death due to domestic abuse. 17 *Abuser is dependent. *His birthday attack was pre planned. *She was too scared to go to the hospital. *He was in prison twice and went to court 7 times due to violence and criminal damage. *Dawn was hit 9 times in three months. *Bruises in prison. *Proof on body cameras on police. *He is in prison for 10 years. *90 calls in Essex of domestic abuse a day. *Police called every 30 second in the county. *1 in 4 women experience domestic abuse. *They threaten children to damage the mother and child relationship. 18