Move to Global War – Italy
Fascism – refers to the most ultranationalist groups who advocated an end to or severe modification of
republican forms of government in favour of authoritarian, nationalist and single-party states
Imperialism – policy or system of a state gaining control of foreign lands for reasons of trade, prestige or
military advantage
Background to Italy:
Little support for parliamentary democracy due to:
− Liberals dominated politics, aiming to modernise Italy through social reforms like state education (to
break the conservative influence of the Catholic Church) and stimulating economic development
− 1900 right to vote still restricted (only 2% of adult population could vote)
− Liberals wanted to keep power until the social divisions were sorted and the new state was secure
− Resentment to restrictions increased by corrupt politics. Liberals lacked discipline – led to politicians
forming factions to alternate political control – became known as trasformismo ‘transformism’
Gained independence from Austria in 1861 but remained divided:
Incorporation of the papal states into Italy 1870 caused Catholic hostility to the new Italian kingdom,
lasting into the early 20th century
Significant social and economic divisions, especially between the more prosperous industrial north and
poorer agricultural south:
− People felt more loyalty to their own town or region than to the national government
− Geography of the land made communication difficult and separated the people. In the south, earlier
rulers had deliberately neglected road and railway development to stop the spread of northern liberal
and revolutionary ideas
− Land in the south suitable for farming was owned by a small minority of wealthy landowners. Most of
the population were extremely poor
− Agriculture more developed in northern and central Italy. Used modern farming methods and
machinery. Productivity still lower than northern European countries
− Biggest economic division in industry: Fiat car company established in 1899 and by 1913 it was
exporting over 4,000 cars a year. Northern towns and cities grew rapidly, leading to the creation of a
large industrial working class, a sizeable middle class and a powerful class of rich industrialists and
bankers. No real investment in the south
− Frequent clashes between employers and employees as many workers joined the socialists or
anarchists. Led to a general strike in 1904
− Nationalists made claims for various territories in Europe. Wanted to establish an empire of colonies in
Africa and Asia to become a European power
Problems were worsened by Italy’s entry into WWI:
− Divisions between interventionists (nationalists) and those who wanted to remain neutral. Supported
the Triple Entente after negotiating with both sides about which territories they would gain for joining
them. Signed the Treaty of London in May 1915
− Soldiers ill-equipped and supplied. Poor military leadership, led to them fighting a costly war of
attrition with high casualties
− Government borrowed heavily from Britain and US. Inflation between 1915 and 1918. Worsened by
higher unemployment after the war as war-based industries shut and more than 2.5 million soldiers
demobilised
, − Industrial north benefitted from the war industry, while the agricultural south was badly affected by
the conscription of workers
− Dismantlement of the Austria-Hungarian Empire left Italy the dominant power in the Adriatic.
However, gained limited territory from the peace treaties – didn’t receive northern Dalmatia promised
in the Treaty of London. Didn’t get demands made at the Paris Conference in 1919 – a share of
Germany’s African territories and the port city of Fiume
Political opposition:
− Jan 1919, papacy allowed a Catholic political party to form, the Italian Popular Party (PPI)
− Italian Socialist Party (PSI) inspired by the Bolshevik movement, called for the overthrow of the liberal
state and establishment of a socialist republic. Membership increased from 50,000 in 1914 to 200,000
by 1919, mainly industrial workers
− Biennio rosso 1919-20 – unemployment rose to over two million in 1919 and industrial workers began
strikes, factory and land occupations organised by trade unions and peasant leagues. Involved over a
million workers across Italy. By end of 1919, membership of socialist trade unions was over two million.
Government didn’t respond, leading many of the middle and upper classes to view them as
incompetent
− Militant and right-wing groups, including demobilised and unemployed troops who didn’t accept many
aspects of post-war Italian society, joined groups like the Arditi. In early 1919, Arditi formed themselves
into organised groups across Italy, using weapons to attack socialists and trade unionists who they saw
as enemies of Italy – the Fascio di Combattimiento
− March 1919, he tried to bring together nationalists and socialists, combining various left and right-wing
demands, united by their hatred of the liberal state
− D’Annunzio took the city of Fiume, near Dalmatia, by force and ruled for 15 months. He became an idol
to Italian nationalists and an inspiration to Mussolini
− Nov 1919 elections used a system of proportional representation for the lower house of parliament. No
fascist candidates were elected, with Mussolini only receiving 5,000 of 270,000 in Milan
− Mussolini realised that to gain support he had to convince people that the liberals were not an
effective political force; there was a real threat of socialist revolution; only the fascists were strong and
determined enough to restore order and dignity to Italy
The economic elites and emerging fascism:
− Unrest of biennio rosso benefited Mussolini as he offered to send in squadre d’azione (action squads)
to repel the strikers. Industrialists and landowners, frustrated by the lack of government response,
were quick to fund his group in return for their violent actions against the left’s strikes and occupations
− Also tried to destroy the influence of peasant leagues and burnt down the offices and newspaper
printing of socialists and trade unions in northern and central Italy
− Squads controlled by local fascist leaders called ras
− Followers composed of ex-troops, non-commissioned officers and middle-class students united by their
hatred of socialists and belief in violent action, rather than any coherent political ideology
− As the socialists gained more power, the membership of the squadristi rose
− August 1921, Mussolini signed the Pact of Pacification with moderate socialists and the main trade
union, angering the ras. He then resigned from the Fascist Central Committee, outmanoeuvring the ras
− He made an electoral pact with the liberals, promising the leader that the violent talk of the fascists
was not serious – prompted a new wave of fascist violence often ignored by the elites and authorities.
− After success in the election, with the fascists winning 35 seats, Mussolini announced that they would
not support the coalition government
Fascism – refers to the most ultranationalist groups who advocated an end to or severe modification of
republican forms of government in favour of authoritarian, nationalist and single-party states
Imperialism – policy or system of a state gaining control of foreign lands for reasons of trade, prestige or
military advantage
Background to Italy:
Little support for parliamentary democracy due to:
− Liberals dominated politics, aiming to modernise Italy through social reforms like state education (to
break the conservative influence of the Catholic Church) and stimulating economic development
− 1900 right to vote still restricted (only 2% of adult population could vote)
− Liberals wanted to keep power until the social divisions were sorted and the new state was secure
− Resentment to restrictions increased by corrupt politics. Liberals lacked discipline – led to politicians
forming factions to alternate political control – became known as trasformismo ‘transformism’
Gained independence from Austria in 1861 but remained divided:
Incorporation of the papal states into Italy 1870 caused Catholic hostility to the new Italian kingdom,
lasting into the early 20th century
Significant social and economic divisions, especially between the more prosperous industrial north and
poorer agricultural south:
− People felt more loyalty to their own town or region than to the national government
− Geography of the land made communication difficult and separated the people. In the south, earlier
rulers had deliberately neglected road and railway development to stop the spread of northern liberal
and revolutionary ideas
− Land in the south suitable for farming was owned by a small minority of wealthy landowners. Most of
the population were extremely poor
− Agriculture more developed in northern and central Italy. Used modern farming methods and
machinery. Productivity still lower than northern European countries
− Biggest economic division in industry: Fiat car company established in 1899 and by 1913 it was
exporting over 4,000 cars a year. Northern towns and cities grew rapidly, leading to the creation of a
large industrial working class, a sizeable middle class and a powerful class of rich industrialists and
bankers. No real investment in the south
− Frequent clashes between employers and employees as many workers joined the socialists or
anarchists. Led to a general strike in 1904
− Nationalists made claims for various territories in Europe. Wanted to establish an empire of colonies in
Africa and Asia to become a European power
Problems were worsened by Italy’s entry into WWI:
− Divisions between interventionists (nationalists) and those who wanted to remain neutral. Supported
the Triple Entente after negotiating with both sides about which territories they would gain for joining
them. Signed the Treaty of London in May 1915
− Soldiers ill-equipped and supplied. Poor military leadership, led to them fighting a costly war of
attrition with high casualties
− Government borrowed heavily from Britain and US. Inflation between 1915 and 1918. Worsened by
higher unemployment after the war as war-based industries shut and more than 2.5 million soldiers
demobilised
, − Industrial north benefitted from the war industry, while the agricultural south was badly affected by
the conscription of workers
− Dismantlement of the Austria-Hungarian Empire left Italy the dominant power in the Adriatic.
However, gained limited territory from the peace treaties – didn’t receive northern Dalmatia promised
in the Treaty of London. Didn’t get demands made at the Paris Conference in 1919 – a share of
Germany’s African territories and the port city of Fiume
Political opposition:
− Jan 1919, papacy allowed a Catholic political party to form, the Italian Popular Party (PPI)
− Italian Socialist Party (PSI) inspired by the Bolshevik movement, called for the overthrow of the liberal
state and establishment of a socialist republic. Membership increased from 50,000 in 1914 to 200,000
by 1919, mainly industrial workers
− Biennio rosso 1919-20 – unemployment rose to over two million in 1919 and industrial workers began
strikes, factory and land occupations organised by trade unions and peasant leagues. Involved over a
million workers across Italy. By end of 1919, membership of socialist trade unions was over two million.
Government didn’t respond, leading many of the middle and upper classes to view them as
incompetent
− Militant and right-wing groups, including demobilised and unemployed troops who didn’t accept many
aspects of post-war Italian society, joined groups like the Arditi. In early 1919, Arditi formed themselves
into organised groups across Italy, using weapons to attack socialists and trade unionists who they saw
as enemies of Italy – the Fascio di Combattimiento
− March 1919, he tried to bring together nationalists and socialists, combining various left and right-wing
demands, united by their hatred of the liberal state
− D’Annunzio took the city of Fiume, near Dalmatia, by force and ruled for 15 months. He became an idol
to Italian nationalists and an inspiration to Mussolini
− Nov 1919 elections used a system of proportional representation for the lower house of parliament. No
fascist candidates were elected, with Mussolini only receiving 5,000 of 270,000 in Milan
− Mussolini realised that to gain support he had to convince people that the liberals were not an
effective political force; there was a real threat of socialist revolution; only the fascists were strong and
determined enough to restore order and dignity to Italy
The economic elites and emerging fascism:
− Unrest of biennio rosso benefited Mussolini as he offered to send in squadre d’azione (action squads)
to repel the strikers. Industrialists and landowners, frustrated by the lack of government response,
were quick to fund his group in return for their violent actions against the left’s strikes and occupations
− Also tried to destroy the influence of peasant leagues and burnt down the offices and newspaper
printing of socialists and trade unions in northern and central Italy
− Squads controlled by local fascist leaders called ras
− Followers composed of ex-troops, non-commissioned officers and middle-class students united by their
hatred of socialists and belief in violent action, rather than any coherent political ideology
− As the socialists gained more power, the membership of the squadristi rose
− August 1921, Mussolini signed the Pact of Pacification with moderate socialists and the main trade
union, angering the ras. He then resigned from the Fascist Central Committee, outmanoeuvring the ras
− He made an electoral pact with the liberals, promising the leader that the violent talk of the fascists
was not serious – prompted a new wave of fascist violence often ignored by the elites and authorities.
− After success in the election, with the fascists winning 35 seats, Mussolini announced that they would
not support the coalition government
