Causes of The French Revolution from 1774 &
The Events of 1789
The Ancien Regime
- Absolute monarchy - hereditary monarch (Bourbon) who did not share
power - 3 estates - classes with different legal status and taxes:
● First Estate = Roman Catholic Clergy
0.5% of population owned 1/10 of land. Controlled all education & most
hospitals. Church courts settled internal and external disputes. Major
supporter of monarchy. Had powers of censorship & published govt
messages.Upper-clergy = mostly aristocrats, lower clergy = often poor.
Clergy paid no tax, only voluntary annual contribution to the crown (16 mil
livres) and Church received taxes- tithes which were a tenth of the annual
income of everyone in the 3rd estate.
● Second Estate = Nobles
140,000 in 28 million (less than 1%) population owned ¼-⅓ of land.
Dominated higher posts in govt/army/church. Nobles of the Sword - lived in
Versailles as natural advisers to king (hereditary). Nobles of the Robe -
dominated office holding (gained titles passed to heirs). 4,000 out of 70,000
venal offices owned by this class. Many lived outside Paris in chateaus, and
were poor/poorly educated. Had right to impose payments on peasants on
their estates & were free from direct taxation/ taille (land tax). Nobles allowed
to take the best of every harvest.
, ● Third Estate = Everyone else
Urban bourgeoisie including professionals & merchants - often richer than
nobles, owned ¼ of French land BUT no privileges. 80% of French population
were rural peasants (farmers, sharecroppers, tennants). Paid taille (land tax)
and gabelle (salt tax) to state but also rents and taxes on their grain harvest
to landowners/lords, and tithes to Church.
Louis XVI as King of France
Inheritance
His grandfather, Louis XV left millions of livres debt after wars to extend France’s power.
Louis came to throne 1774
System of Power
● Govt was Louis, advisers & ministers.
● In the 36 provinces, King’s authority represented by intendants
● Central govt based in Palace of Versailles
● Problems
● Louis met ministers separately - were working against each other/ not cooperating/
court factions
● Variation of laws/customs across France with no single representative body to pass
laws applied to whole country.
● Different forms of administration/legal systems/ tax collection across France so no
single solution to problems.
● Louis XVI
● Took duties very seriously - well-educated, spoke English & Italian fluently
● Very committed to Catholic Church
● Not a very dynamic leader/no powerful royal presence. Often shy and
uncommunicative.
● Unpopular marriage to Marie Antionette of Austria - as Austria blamed for French
defeat in Seven Years War (1756-63) + spent excessively- lack of trust in the Crown
● Louis failed to consummate the marriage for years with no male heir until 1781.
The Situation 1774
When Louis inherited the throne - few problems that posed direct threat of revolution. There
was privilege but it was widespread and not only enjoyed by upper-classes. There were
financial problems but there had been consistent debt in France and other countries for a
long time - this was common. Most European cities at this time experienced urban
discontent and rising prices.
Financial problems Key
issues
● Tax burden on
3rd estate (1st &
2nd exempt from
certain tax)
● Inefficient tax
system
○ Regional variations in tax collection made process chaotic and incomplete.
○ Tax farming Collection: Farmers-General paid agreed sum to Crown and
collected taxes on King’s behalf - kept surplus beyond their agreement as profit.
, ● Debt from wars
○ War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) had cost 1 billion livres and the
Seven Years war cost approx. 1.3 billion livres
● Interest on govt debt reached 50%
● Annual deficit was 37 million livres and total debt was 235 million livres
● Balance sheets were years out of date
Why so difficult to deal with?
Would be challenging to get direct taxation from privileged classes, little tradition of cutting
back on royal expenses, tax rises were unpopular.
Turgot
Controller General of Finances 1774-76.
He was a physiocrat- believed wealth of France came from agriculture and state regulation/
price controls should end.
Six Edicts : abolish price controls, reduce restrictions on trade guilds, end the corvée (forced
labour on roads).
BUT end of price controls led to wide scale unrest & bread rioting. Also faced opposition
from privileged court members - people like Marie Antionette saw about his downfall 1776.
France’s later decision to go to war in 1778 (America) ruined his attempts to control prices.
Necker
Director General of Finances 1776-81 (& 1788-89)
Focus on royal finances, less on whole economy. Saw it was key to establish confidence in
royal accounts.
Published royal accounts in the Compte Rendu, 1781. Established reputation as reformer
who informed the public about the truth of govt finance.
Also wanted to increase Crown’s share in farmed out taxation and planned to reduce no. of
venal offices - less govt control.
BUT he was only able to make a small increase in royal income - predicted a surplus based
on unrealistic spending figures.
Increasing debt at heart of his policies - borrowed over 500 million livres
Necker was disliked by the court for publishing details of expenditure (pensions and royal
household) so he resigned in 1781. He was recalled in 1788 when he advocated the
summoning of the estates general.
Calonne
Appointed 1783
Established sinking fund and reissued gold coinage to deal with debt of over 100 mil livres
3 Part Plan : Economies, land tax (end privileges) , and free trade (end internal customs to
increase prosperity)
To avoid hostility in parlements, Cologne called the Assembly of Notables to share
responsibilities for reform. But this group failed to agree, and Calonne was dismissed
and exiled.
He was ridiculed as ‘monsieur deficit’ - By 1789 there was a deficit of 126 million livres
and interest on debt taking 51% of total spending vs 36% on defence
Overall
● Financial issues showed failure of Crown to support reforming ministers
● Louis was to blame for his failure to support the ministers but they all had faults:
○ Turgot - underestimated furious reaction to free trade in grain
, ○ Necker - popular but unrealistic & encouraged calling of EG
○ Calonne - overestimated ability to convince Assembly of Notables to reform
● Despite huge debt - govt still functioning - did well in war of Independence, there was
economic progress and Louis XVI retained relative popularity.
● Increased public interest in finances - Compte Rendu became a bestseller - belief
that the problems could be solved by summoning the nation to discuss them.
The Enlightenment
● Intellectual developments in Europe 17th-19th C that challenged religion, monarchy,
aristocracy- encouraged free thought
● Discussed mostly amongst educated elite- vast peasant masses not influenced but
some ideas simplified and reached a wider audience-paved the way to a new French
Republic
Reason & Science
Diderot’s Encyclopedia brought together scientific knowledge. Strong desire for improvement
and to question outdated beliefs. E.g Biffon’s studies of nature and creation omitted any
reference to the bible - precedent for evolution.
Politics
Highly influenced by British philosopher John Locke. Ideas expressed in American
declaration of independence that all men had natural rights that govt should not take away.
Idea that if govts were oppressive, citizens had every right to revolt and demand fair rights.
Montesquieu believed power should be shared- condemned despotism- but believed church
and nobility should share power. In The Spirit of Laws 1748, he suggested this separation of
powers.
Rousseau had more radical ideas - wanted a social contract to ensure that rulers rule in the
interest of the people. All policies are dictated by the ‘General Will’ of citizens.
Religion
Voltaire - believed in absolute power but also tolerance. Philosopher king should rule in the
people’s interest and defeat the selfishness of privileged classes. Novel Candide shows a
hero who finds freedom in simplicity in a wicked world of priests and wars.
Rousseau also opposed religion - believing children are inherently good and goes
against idea of ‘original sin’.
Nature & Sensibility
Idea that modern world had moved too far from natural virtues - presented in Rousseau’s
Confessions and Emile. There was a strong sense that ordinary people lived a purer life
than the rich and had an innate wisdom.
Spread of ideas
● Salons: Aristocratic hostesses invite guests (nobles and bourgeoisie) to discuss art
/literature/politics.
● Newspapers: growing number- 3 in 1700, 80 in 1785
● Plays: e.g. reached upper third estate
● Increased literacy rate - rose 18% in last century
● Paris 1789, 575 people subscribed to Diderot’s Encyclopedia
The Events of 1789
The Ancien Regime
- Absolute monarchy - hereditary monarch (Bourbon) who did not share
power - 3 estates - classes with different legal status and taxes:
● First Estate = Roman Catholic Clergy
0.5% of population owned 1/10 of land. Controlled all education & most
hospitals. Church courts settled internal and external disputes. Major
supporter of monarchy. Had powers of censorship & published govt
messages.Upper-clergy = mostly aristocrats, lower clergy = often poor.
Clergy paid no tax, only voluntary annual contribution to the crown (16 mil
livres) and Church received taxes- tithes which were a tenth of the annual
income of everyone in the 3rd estate.
● Second Estate = Nobles
140,000 in 28 million (less than 1%) population owned ¼-⅓ of land.
Dominated higher posts in govt/army/church. Nobles of the Sword - lived in
Versailles as natural advisers to king (hereditary). Nobles of the Robe -
dominated office holding (gained titles passed to heirs). 4,000 out of 70,000
venal offices owned by this class. Many lived outside Paris in chateaus, and
were poor/poorly educated. Had right to impose payments on peasants on
their estates & were free from direct taxation/ taille (land tax). Nobles allowed
to take the best of every harvest.
, ● Third Estate = Everyone else
Urban bourgeoisie including professionals & merchants - often richer than
nobles, owned ¼ of French land BUT no privileges. 80% of French population
were rural peasants (farmers, sharecroppers, tennants). Paid taille (land tax)
and gabelle (salt tax) to state but also rents and taxes on their grain harvest
to landowners/lords, and tithes to Church.
Louis XVI as King of France
Inheritance
His grandfather, Louis XV left millions of livres debt after wars to extend France’s power.
Louis came to throne 1774
System of Power
● Govt was Louis, advisers & ministers.
● In the 36 provinces, King’s authority represented by intendants
● Central govt based in Palace of Versailles
● Problems
● Louis met ministers separately - were working against each other/ not cooperating/
court factions
● Variation of laws/customs across France with no single representative body to pass
laws applied to whole country.
● Different forms of administration/legal systems/ tax collection across France so no
single solution to problems.
● Louis XVI
● Took duties very seriously - well-educated, spoke English & Italian fluently
● Very committed to Catholic Church
● Not a very dynamic leader/no powerful royal presence. Often shy and
uncommunicative.
● Unpopular marriage to Marie Antionette of Austria - as Austria blamed for French
defeat in Seven Years War (1756-63) + spent excessively- lack of trust in the Crown
● Louis failed to consummate the marriage for years with no male heir until 1781.
The Situation 1774
When Louis inherited the throne - few problems that posed direct threat of revolution. There
was privilege but it was widespread and not only enjoyed by upper-classes. There were
financial problems but there had been consistent debt in France and other countries for a
long time - this was common. Most European cities at this time experienced urban
discontent and rising prices.
Financial problems Key
issues
● Tax burden on
3rd estate (1st &
2nd exempt from
certain tax)
● Inefficient tax
system
○ Regional variations in tax collection made process chaotic and incomplete.
○ Tax farming Collection: Farmers-General paid agreed sum to Crown and
collected taxes on King’s behalf - kept surplus beyond their agreement as profit.
, ● Debt from wars
○ War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) had cost 1 billion livres and the
Seven Years war cost approx. 1.3 billion livres
● Interest on govt debt reached 50%
● Annual deficit was 37 million livres and total debt was 235 million livres
● Balance sheets were years out of date
Why so difficult to deal with?
Would be challenging to get direct taxation from privileged classes, little tradition of cutting
back on royal expenses, tax rises were unpopular.
Turgot
Controller General of Finances 1774-76.
He was a physiocrat- believed wealth of France came from agriculture and state regulation/
price controls should end.
Six Edicts : abolish price controls, reduce restrictions on trade guilds, end the corvée (forced
labour on roads).
BUT end of price controls led to wide scale unrest & bread rioting. Also faced opposition
from privileged court members - people like Marie Antionette saw about his downfall 1776.
France’s later decision to go to war in 1778 (America) ruined his attempts to control prices.
Necker
Director General of Finances 1776-81 (& 1788-89)
Focus on royal finances, less on whole economy. Saw it was key to establish confidence in
royal accounts.
Published royal accounts in the Compte Rendu, 1781. Established reputation as reformer
who informed the public about the truth of govt finance.
Also wanted to increase Crown’s share in farmed out taxation and planned to reduce no. of
venal offices - less govt control.
BUT he was only able to make a small increase in royal income - predicted a surplus based
on unrealistic spending figures.
Increasing debt at heart of his policies - borrowed over 500 million livres
Necker was disliked by the court for publishing details of expenditure (pensions and royal
household) so he resigned in 1781. He was recalled in 1788 when he advocated the
summoning of the estates general.
Calonne
Appointed 1783
Established sinking fund and reissued gold coinage to deal with debt of over 100 mil livres
3 Part Plan : Economies, land tax (end privileges) , and free trade (end internal customs to
increase prosperity)
To avoid hostility in parlements, Cologne called the Assembly of Notables to share
responsibilities for reform. But this group failed to agree, and Calonne was dismissed
and exiled.
He was ridiculed as ‘monsieur deficit’ - By 1789 there was a deficit of 126 million livres
and interest on debt taking 51% of total spending vs 36% on defence
Overall
● Financial issues showed failure of Crown to support reforming ministers
● Louis was to blame for his failure to support the ministers but they all had faults:
○ Turgot - underestimated furious reaction to free trade in grain
, ○ Necker - popular but unrealistic & encouraged calling of EG
○ Calonne - overestimated ability to convince Assembly of Notables to reform
● Despite huge debt - govt still functioning - did well in war of Independence, there was
economic progress and Louis XVI retained relative popularity.
● Increased public interest in finances - Compte Rendu became a bestseller - belief
that the problems could be solved by summoning the nation to discuss them.
The Enlightenment
● Intellectual developments in Europe 17th-19th C that challenged religion, monarchy,
aristocracy- encouraged free thought
● Discussed mostly amongst educated elite- vast peasant masses not influenced but
some ideas simplified and reached a wider audience-paved the way to a new French
Republic
Reason & Science
Diderot’s Encyclopedia brought together scientific knowledge. Strong desire for improvement
and to question outdated beliefs. E.g Biffon’s studies of nature and creation omitted any
reference to the bible - precedent for evolution.
Politics
Highly influenced by British philosopher John Locke. Ideas expressed in American
declaration of independence that all men had natural rights that govt should not take away.
Idea that if govts were oppressive, citizens had every right to revolt and demand fair rights.
Montesquieu believed power should be shared- condemned despotism- but believed church
and nobility should share power. In The Spirit of Laws 1748, he suggested this separation of
powers.
Rousseau had more radical ideas - wanted a social contract to ensure that rulers rule in the
interest of the people. All policies are dictated by the ‘General Will’ of citizens.
Religion
Voltaire - believed in absolute power but also tolerance. Philosopher king should rule in the
people’s interest and defeat the selfishness of privileged classes. Novel Candide shows a
hero who finds freedom in simplicity in a wicked world of priests and wars.
Rousseau also opposed religion - believing children are inherently good and goes
against idea of ‘original sin’.
Nature & Sensibility
Idea that modern world had moved too far from natural virtues - presented in Rousseau’s
Confessions and Emile. There was a strong sense that ordinary people lived a purer life
than the rich and had an innate wisdom.
Spread of ideas
● Salons: Aristocratic hostesses invite guests (nobles and bourgeoisie) to discuss art
/literature/politics.
● Newspapers: growing number- 3 in 1700, 80 in 1785
● Plays: e.g. reached upper third estate
● Increased literacy rate - rose 18% in last century
● Paris 1789, 575 people subscribed to Diderot’s Encyclopedia
