Factors Influencing EWT: Reliability
Post-event Information:
Leading Questions:
Refers to any information that arrives after an event
Triggers schemas in which the way questions are
that may affect or distort an eye-witness’ memory of
phrased when the witness is asked about their
what happened.
memory of the event.
Memory is reconstructive and so a person’s ability to
Leading questions may help a witness recall more
recall memory may be based on their schema.
accurately.
Bartlett called this ‘effort after meaning’.
Weapon Focus:
The Influence of Anxiety:
Anxiety may be pushed ‘over the edge’.
Kenneth Deffenbacher 1983 conducted a review of 21
In violent crimes with a weapon, our brain’s natural
studies and concluded that moderate levels of
tendency is to zoom in on that as the main source of
anxiety are actually helpful to memory.
stress.
However is an eye-witness’ anxiety continues to rise,
Tunnel theory - noticing a weapon produces a form of
and becomes too extreme, then this is associated with
selective attention which excludes or ignores an other
a decline in recall.
competing bits of information.
Evaluation
Strength:
Strength:
Strength of weapon focus explanation is that is
Loftus and Palmer 1974 involved leading questions -
supported by experimental evidence.
participants who heard the word ‘smashed’ rather
Johnson and Scott 1976 - ppts who saw a weapon
than ‘contacted’ gave a higher estimate of speed.
inaccurately described the man’s appearance rather
They also reported seeing broken glass when there
than those who didn’t have a weapon.
wasn’t any.
Suggests that participants’ attention had been
Suggests post-event information in the form of
drawn towards the weapon and away from other
leading questions has a significant effect on recall.
peripheral details.
Weakness:
Application:
John Yuille and Judith Cutshall 1986 interviewed
Research into eye-witness testimony caused changes
witnesses to a real-life shooting in Canada.
in the legal system.
13 witnesses interviewed and produced accurate
Social framework evidence - provide some ‘context’ to
accounts with deliberate inclusion of 2 leading
juries.
questions in the 2nd interview.
Suggests that research which recognises the
Suggests the effects of leading questions and weapon
fallibility of human memory is useful in reducing
focus may be less pronounced when applied to real
miscarriages of justice in legal cases.
life events.
Post-event Information:
Leading Questions:
Refers to any information that arrives after an event
Triggers schemas in which the way questions are
that may affect or distort an eye-witness’ memory of
phrased when the witness is asked about their
what happened.
memory of the event.
Memory is reconstructive and so a person’s ability to
Leading questions may help a witness recall more
recall memory may be based on their schema.
accurately.
Bartlett called this ‘effort after meaning’.
Weapon Focus:
The Influence of Anxiety:
Anxiety may be pushed ‘over the edge’.
Kenneth Deffenbacher 1983 conducted a review of 21
In violent crimes with a weapon, our brain’s natural
studies and concluded that moderate levels of
tendency is to zoom in on that as the main source of
anxiety are actually helpful to memory.
stress.
However is an eye-witness’ anxiety continues to rise,
Tunnel theory - noticing a weapon produces a form of
and becomes too extreme, then this is associated with
selective attention which excludes or ignores an other
a decline in recall.
competing bits of information.
Evaluation
Strength:
Strength:
Strength of weapon focus explanation is that is
Loftus and Palmer 1974 involved leading questions -
supported by experimental evidence.
participants who heard the word ‘smashed’ rather
Johnson and Scott 1976 - ppts who saw a weapon
than ‘contacted’ gave a higher estimate of speed.
inaccurately described the man’s appearance rather
They also reported seeing broken glass when there
than those who didn’t have a weapon.
wasn’t any.
Suggests that participants’ attention had been
Suggests post-event information in the form of
drawn towards the weapon and away from other
leading questions has a significant effect on recall.
peripheral details.
Weakness:
Application:
John Yuille and Judith Cutshall 1986 interviewed
Research into eye-witness testimony caused changes
witnesses to a real-life shooting in Canada.
in the legal system.
13 witnesses interviewed and produced accurate
Social framework evidence - provide some ‘context’ to
accounts with deliberate inclusion of 2 leading
juries.
questions in the 2nd interview.
Suggests that research which recognises the
Suggests the effects of leading questions and weapon
fallibility of human memory is useful in reducing
focus may be less pronounced when applied to real
miscarriages of justice in legal cases.
life events.
