Chapter 1: Human Inquiry and Science

MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which view recognizes that scientists are human and, as such, have personal orientations that affect what they observe and how they explain it? a. postmodern b. premodern c. modern d. Ultramodern Ans. A ref. p. 13 2. Professor Rodgers found that the average level of happiness reported by people under 65 years of age declined from 1957 to 1970. For the same group, the average level of happiness increased slightly from 1971 to 1978. Rodgers also found that the average level of happiness reported by people age 65 and older increased from 1957 to 1978. What is the variable in this study? a. aged 65 and older b. less than age 65 c. age d. age 65 Ans. C ref. 16 3. In contrast to knowing things only through agreement, what is considered a key source of knowledge? a. media b. current trends c. personal experience d. historical fact Ans. C ref. p. 5 4. What does social scientific theory address? a. what should be b. what is and why c. matters of value d. how and where Ans. B ref. p. 13 3 5. Which form does a probabilistic explanation take? a. x is always y b. x is never y c. x tends to be y d. y is always x Ans. C ref. p. 7 6. What does the statement “Knowledge for knowledge’s sake” best describe? a. pure research b. applied research c. inductive logic d. deductive logic Ans. A ref. p. 26 7. Which of the following is NOT an aim of social science? a. judging social values b. predicting social phenomena c. understanding social regularities d. explaining social regularities Ans. A ref. p 13-14 8. Which of the following is among the safeguards against error in social research? a. making observations less deliberate b. replicating under slightly varying circumstances c. using only simple measurement devices d. avoiding independent replications by other researchers Ans. B ref. p. 9 9. What is an independent variable? a. a theoretical concept b. a variable influencing other variables c. a variable influenced by other variables d. a set of attributes Ans. B ref. p. 19 4 10. When describing qualitative and quantitative explanations, what can we conclude? a. Both types of explanations tend to be idiographic. b. Both types of explanations tend to be nomothetic. c. Qualitative explanations tend to be idiographic, and quantitative explanations tend to be nomothetic. d. Qualitative explanations tend to be nomothetic, and quantitative explanations tend to be idiographic. Ans. C ref. 24-25 11. What statement best describes deductive approaches to social theory and research? a. Deductive begins with big things and moves toward small things. b. Deductive begins at the bottom and moves toward the top. c. Deductive begins at a micro level and moves toward a macro level. d. Deductive begins with theoretical ideas and moves toward observable things. Ans. D ref. 23-24 12. A social science instructor asks students in an introductory class to complete questionnaires about their drinking behaviours. They are told that the instructor will analyze them and use the data in preparing a journal article for publication. What ethical practice is in question? a. respecting privacy and confidentiality b. avoiding deception c. avoiding harm d. ensuring voluntary participation Ans. D ref. p. 27 13. “Exposure to classical music increases IQ scores.” This hypothesis is an example of what kind of statement? a. nomothetic b. informal c. idiographic d. Causal Ans. C ref. p. 19-20 5 14. In order to understand the experiences of first year university students, a researcher developed a large random sample of students to interview. He ensured the sample was representative of the diversity within the general student population. By doing so, what error of inquiry has the researcher managed to avoid? a. selective observation b. inaccurate observation c. illogical reasoning d. Overgeneralization Ans. C ref. p. 9 15. What are the two foundations of science? a. theory and logic b. observation and logic c. observation and theory d. logic and experience Ans. B ref. 6-7 16. Richard examined the following categories of undergraduate students: full-time, part-time, and flex-time. What are these categories known as? a. concepts b. variables c. classes d. Attributes Ans. D ref. p. 16 17. What aspect of science does theory deal with? a. observational b. logical c. critical d. Political Ans. B ref. p. 13 6 18. To study the implementation of a new educational program, Emily designs an experiment to assess its success. She measures student ability before and after the program, to try to establish whether there has been an increase in ability that can be attributed to the new resource. What type of research has Emily designed? a. action research b. social impact assessment research c. evaluation research d. basic research Ans. C ref. p. 26 TRUE/FALSE 1. Theory that is logically inconsistent is acceptable as long as it is empirically accurate. (Ans. F, ref. p. 14-15) 2. Idiographic explanations are inductive and nomothetic explanations are deductive. (Ans. F, ref. p. 23-24 3. The misuse of authority refers to experts who discuss their area of expertise in public. (Ans. F, ref. p. 8) 4. We can predict without understanding. (Ans. T, ref. p. 7) 5. The premodern view assumes that we see things as they really are. (Ans. T, ref. p. 10) 6. Science can settle debates about values. (Ans. F, ref. p. 13) 7. Ethical rules of social research are simple and absolute. (Ans. F, ref. p. 26) 8. Pure research creates knowledge for knowledge’s sake. (Ans. T, ref. p. 26) 9. Nonscientific concerns shape the activities of social researchers. (Ans. T, ref. 26) SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 1. Discuss how scientific inquiry tries to avoid the common pitfalls that produce error in nonscientific inquiry. 2. Discuss how the scientific method is an approach to correct inaccuracies of ordinary human inquiry. 7 3. Compare and contrast the three views of reality that provide the philosophical backdrop for the discussion of science. 4. List five sociological variables and their attributes. 5. Explain what is meant by the statement “Tradition and authority are the two-edged swords in the search for knowledge about the world.” 8 Chapter 2: Paradigm, Theory and Research MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which of the following is NOT a function of theory for research? a. Theory helps us avoid being taken in by flukes. b. Theory helps us to analyze our raw data. c. Theory helps us to make sense out of observed patterns. d. Theory shapes and directs research efforts. B Ref. p. 31 2. Which term refers to a model or scheme for helping people organize and interpret the world? a. paradigm b. concept c. hypothesis d. Law A Ref. p. 32 3. Which of the following topics would a macrotheorist be more likely to study than a microtheorist? a. the effects of judges’ instructions on jury deliberations b. the relationships between government, family, and the economy c. dating behaviours d. student–faculty interactions B Ref. p. 33 4. In a study of women, the following notation was used: Y = f(X) where Y represented fertility plans, and X represented occupational plans. What does this notation state? a. Fertility plans are a function of occupational plans. b. Occupational plans are a function of fertility plans. c. Gender impacts fertility plans. d. Occupational plans are affected by gender. A Ref. p. 44-45 9 5. Which best describes the grounded theory method? a. It is a method based on quantitative data. b. It is a deductive method of theory construction. c. It requires the researcher to construct theory by observing aspects of social life. d. It is a process of testing theory. C Ref. p. 54 6. Professor May wants to learn how grandparents define their role when they become the guardians of their grandchildren. May asks grandparents questions like “How did you come to have custody of your grandchild?” and “Do you feel more like a parent or a grandparent?” Which paradigm is May probably using? a. ethnomethodology b. life cycle paradigm c. structural functionalism d. symbolic interactionism D Ref. p. 35-36 7. The original source of Minamata disease, which produces severe nervous disorders and birth defects, was traced to the Chisso Chemical Company’s dumping of mercury into a bay where Japanese villagers fished. The villagers of Minamata, the village in which the company was located, refused to become involved in lawsuits against the chemical company for many years. However, the residents of Niigata, a fishing village 65 kilometres up the river from the factory, filed lawsuits against the chemical company. Which of the following uses the conflict paradigm to explain the differences in behaviour related to lawsuits in the two villages? a. The Minamata victims were less likely to be tied socially, economically, and physically to the company than were the Niigato victims. b. The Japanese culture frowns on lawsuits. c. The chemical company controlled more of the village resources in Minamata than in Niigato. d. People in Niigato are more aggressive than people in Minamata. C Ref. p. 34-35 10 8. Jeremy attended a chamber music concert. During one of the movements he jumped up and yelled, “Way to go violin!” Later he screamed, “Come on cello!” What type of social scientific paradigm was Jeremy probably using to do his research? a. symbolic interactionist b. structural functionalist c. Conflict d. Ethnomethodologist D. Ref. p. 36 9. Which of the following statements is true of social science? a. The logical integrity of a theory demonstrates its correctness. b. If a theory is logically correct it need NOT be empirically correct. c. The collection of empirical facts provides understanding. d. Logical integrity and empirical verification are essential to scientific inquiry. D Ref. p. 54 10. Theory directly relates to which type of questions? a. Who? b. What? c. When? d. Why? D Ref. p. 32 11. What would symbolic interactionists believe about masculinity and femininity? a. They are reversible. b. They are directed by religion. c. They are part of a gendered order. d. They are negotiable. D Ref. p. 35-36 11 12. One technique ethnomethodologists use is to break the rules to violate people’s expectations. What concern may arise from such behaviour? a. Will the researchers put themselves in jeopardy? b. How will we quantify people’s reactions? c. Is engaging in such experiments ethical? d. What practical concerns are being ignored? C Ref. p. 36 13. Which of the following research questions investigates topics at the “most macrolevel” of analysis? a. How do activists use their experiences with police brutality and repression to construct a meaningful understanding of such situations? b. Are periods of unemployment in social democratic states shorter than in more liberal states? c. Is lower socioeconomic status associated with higher incidence of negative health outcomes? d. Does interpersonal conflict in marriages contribute to later adult anxiety among the couples’ children? B Ref. p. 33 14. Who created the theory of the looking-glass self? a. Comte b. Durkheim c. Goffman d. Cooley D Ref. p. 35 15. Which approach is described as studying what underlies dominant assumptions and conventions? a. critical theory b. postmodernism c. rationalism d. symbolic interactionism B Ref. 41 12 16. Which method of data collection would be most appropriate to use when applying an inductive, grounded-theory approach to theory development? a. survey research b. experimental research c. field research d. focus group research C Ref. p. 53 17. What was the purpose of the “Asch Experiment”? a. to discover what caused the differing levels of church involvement in the U.S.A. b. to understand how people internalize the idea of distributive justice c. to see if employment discrimination exists in Canada d. to show that we can rationally understand and predict even nonrational human behavior D Ref. p. 39-40 18. Which of these describes Comte’s postulated third stage of history? a. when knowledge is based on observations through the five sense rather than on belief and logic alone b. when is replaced with philosophical ideas such as “nature” c. when religious paradigms predominate in explanations d. when society could never be studied scientifically A Ref. p. 34 19. What variable would a conflict theorist have NO interest in studying? a. class b. gender c. ethnic struggles d. social reality D Ref. p. 35 20. Some believe that the ideal of objectivity conceals as much as it reveals. What expectation that is key to responsible research is therefore being ignored? a. dual irony b. preparedness c. causality d. Transparency D Ref. p. 41 13 TRUE/FALSE 1. Social scientists generally believe that the succession from one paradigm to another represents progress from a false view to a true one. F Ref. p. 33 2. The idea that knowledge is based on observations made through the five senses rather than on beauty is called positivism. T Ref. p. 34 3. Sophisticated positivists assume that humans will always act rationally. F Ref. p. 39 4. The traditional model of science uses inductive logic. F Ref. p. 42-43 5. Theories must always shape and direct research efforts. F Ref. P. 31 6. While our subjectivity is individual, our search for objectivity is social. T Ref. p. 40 7. All research is tightly linked to theory. F Ref. p. 32 8. A single voice that should be known represents the feminist paradigm. F Ref. p. 39 9. A researcher must always begin with a hypothesis in order to properly apply the Wallace model of the research process. F Ref. p. 50 10. The three key variables in Henry and Ginzberg’s research were employment, discrimination, and race. T Ref. p. 45 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. How are theory and research linked? Give examples. 2. Briefly explain and give an example of a topic that a researcher might study when using each of the following: conflict paradigm, symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology, structural functionalism, and the feminist paradigm. 3. Propose a research topic. Outline how you would study it by referring to the three main elements in the traditional model of science—theory, operationalization, and observation. 4. What is “positivism”? Define how this view sees the study of social sciences. How has it been recently challenged? 14 Chapter 3: Ethical Issues for Social Researchers MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which scenario would research ethics boards (REBs) be LEAST concerned about? a. the impact that reliving traumatizing events may have on war veterans when they are interviewed b. the use of deception in gaining access to the “squeegee” community in downtown Toronto c. the legal consequences that a study on assisted suicide may bring to research subjects d. the amount of funding that a graduate student has obtained to carry out research on human subjects in Peru Ans. D (Ref. p. 64) 2. Suppose that a researcher can identify a subject’s responses but promises NOT to do so publicly. What ethical guarantee does this give the subject? a. anonymity b. full disclosure c. confidentiality d. Sensitivity Ans. C (Ref. p. 72) 3. What ethical issue does debriefing subjects help deal with? a. obtaining full and informed consent before a study begins b. avoiding the use of deceit when studying humans c. targeting vulnerable populations d. avoiding legal harm to participants Ans. B (Ref. p. 75) 15 4. How was deception used in the Milgram experiment? a. Teachers were NOT told that they were part of an experiment. b. Electric shocks were NOT being administered to individuals. c. Learners were NOT told that they were, in fact, receiving the experimental stimulus. d. Researchers were NOT told who was the learner and who was the teacher. Ans. B (Ref. p. 78) 5. According to the Tri-Council Policy Statement on Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans, what are the three core principles of modern research ethics? a. respect for persons, reducing harm, and informed consent b. respect for human dignity, maximizing benefits, and reducing harm c. respect for persons, concern for welfare, and justice d. respect for persons, concern for welfare, and informed consent Ans. C (Ref. p. 65-67) 6. What is an important ethical disadvantage of deceiving participants? a. It can damage the professional reputation of the researcher and their discipline. b. It means that records of personal data about the participants cannot be anonymized. c. It makes it more difficult to gain access to deviant or hidden populations. d. It requires debriefing to correct any problems that occurred as a result of the deception. Ans. A (Ref. p. 75) 7. What is NOT a type of disclosure? a. identity disclosure b. residual disclosure c. attribute disclosure d. personal disclosure Ans. D (Ref. p. 68) 16 8. Russel Ogden faced challenges when researching assisted death among people with HIV/AIDS. What do these challenges illustrate? a. failing to protect research subjects from harm b. the unprotected guarantee of confidentiality c. the legal guarantee of privileged communication between researcher and subject d. how a university best protects the rights of academic freedom and research Ans. C (Ref. p. 72) 9. There is an expectation of transparency in the work that researchers do. How does this concept relate to the analysis and reporting phase of the research process? a. Researcher reveal sources. b. Researchers publish results. c. Researchers plan and organize. d. Researchers admit mistakes. Ans. D (Ref. 76) 10. What ethical concern is NOT discussed in relation to Humphreys’s Tearoom Trade study? a. invasion of privacy b. compromised confidentiality c. risk of harm d. lack of consent Ans. B (Ref. 77) 11. Many of the subjects in Milgram’s research on obedience experienced an unexpected degree of stress. How did Milgram justify this? a. The acute stress that they felt was only temporary. b. There was no need to debrief the subjects because they saw the value of their contribution. c. The majority of subjects reported that they were glad to have been in the experiment. d. Psychological stress and pain are secondary to physical pain felt by subjects in other studies. Ans. C (Ref. 78-79) 17 12. What is the main ethical issue in the Tuskegee syphilis study? a. no harm to participants b. confidentiality c. analysis and reporting d. Anonymity Ans. A (Ref. p. 62) 13. What is the main ethical issue in the experiments that were conducted on Canadian prisoners? a. anonymity b. confidentiality c. voluntary participation d. analysis and reporting Ans. C (Ref. 63) 14. What scientific norm is threatened by the expectation of voluntary participation? a. reliability b. repeatability c. generalizability d. Validity Ans. C (Ref. p. 70) 15. After the implementation of the Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS) on ethical conduct for research involving humans, it was acknowledged that there needed to be recognition of different contexts. As a result, what was the focus of a major revision in TCPS 2? a. quantitative research b. inductive research c. deductive research d. qualitative research Ans. D (Ref. p. 67) 18 16. Some topics of research provoke more attention to ethical concerns than do others. Despite researchers’ best efforts; there are certain things that are out of their control that must be incorporated into an ethical research design. In this respect, what did Stephen Baron’s research on homeless Canadian skinhead youths illustrate? a. Some vulnerable populations may be unwilling to participate. b. The research reported can have unintended consequences. c. Physical characteristics of the researcher must be considered in the data collection process. d. The questions asked in the data collection process may not be well understood. Ans. C (Ref. p. 76) 17. Why is there a need for review committees to independently evaluate the treatment of human subjects for research proposals? a. It protects the researcher from legal jeopardy. b. It can reveal ethical issues overlooked by the most scrupulous of researchers. c. It protects the research institution from legal jeopardy. d. It can reveal methodological issues overlooked in the research design. Ans. B (Ref. p. 71) TRUE/FALSE 1. Concerns about ethical standards for research involving human subjects have been present in North America since the beginning of the 20th century. Ans. F (Ref. p. 64) 2. The main goal behind the Tri-Council Working Group was to create a joint policy concerning ethical standards for research involving human and animal subjects. Ans. F (Ref. p. 64) 3. In common usage, ethics is typically associated with morality, and matters involving right and wrong. Ans. T (Ref. p. 69) 4. A respondent is guaranteed anonymity when the researcher can identify a given person’s responses but essentially promises NOT to do so publicly. Ans. F (Ref. p. 71) 5. With the adoption of many professional codes of conduct and other guidelines, ethical issues in research have been finally resolved. Ans. F (Ref. p. 77) 6. Ethical guidelines involve standard solutions to standard problems. Ans. F (Ref. p. 69) 7. Morality and ethics are a matter of agreement. Ans. T (Ref. p. 69) 19 8. Removing identifying information from your data to protect confidentiality raises questions about validity. Ans. T (Ref. p. 74) 9. Scientific inquiry is always rigorously planned and organized. Ans. F (Ref. p. 76) 10. Ethical considerations are of most concern during research design inception. Ans. F (Ref. 79) SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 1. You are interested in studying the relational dynamics that take place in psychiatric hospitals and the types of norms that dominate the interactions between those who staff these institutions and the mentally ill patients. In order to carry out your study, you decide to apply for a janitorial position at St. Patrick’s Mental Clinic. However, to raise as little suspicion as possible, you remove your educational and professional qualifications from your CV, leaving only the high school from which you graduated, as well as the jobs you had during the summers before you began college. What ethical concern(s) does your research project raise? What steps would you likely take at the end of your research to address the ethical issue(s) that concerned you? 2. Identify the ethical issues raised in Humphreys’s study of homosexual behaviour. What ethical principles are most likely to be violated when you conduct a covert study on adults? Include examples in your answer. 3. The Research Ethics Review Board at ABC University has received a research proposal for a study that will try to replicate the early 1960s study on obedience to authority conducted by Stanley Milgram. As a committee member of the Review Board, critically assess and evaluate the ethics of this proposed experiment. 20 Chapter 4: Research Design and Causation MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Suppose a researcher wanted to know why there was a considerable decrease in the number of home invasions in the city of North Bay during 2012. What type of study would the researcher design? a. A descriptive study b. an explanatory study c. an exploratory study d. a panel study Ans. B, ref. p. 88-89 2. Which of the following hypotheses best fits the criteria of causality? a. Males have higher suicide rates than females. b. As income increases, age tends to increase. c. As education increases, income tends to increase. d. As education increases, income tends to increase even after controlling for gender and race. Ans. D, ref. p. 91-93 3. What can a researcher conclude if it is established that variable X comes before variable Q in time? a. that variable X is a cause of variable Q b. that variable X is NOT a cause of variable Q c. that variable Q is a cause of variable X d. that variable Q is NOT a cause of variable X Ans. D, ref. p. 92 21 4. What is the term that describes a case in which one variable seems to cause another, yet the relationship between the two makes no sense? a. nonspurious relationship b. spurious relationship c. nomothetic relationship d. correlational relationship Ans. C, ref. p. 92 5. There is a strong correlation between the number of firefighters that show up at a fire and the amount of damage produced by the fire. The size of the fire influences both the number of firefighters and the amount of damage. What does this illustrate about the relationship between the number of firefighters and the amount of damage? a. It is caused by a third factor. b. It is causal. c. It is NOT correlational. d. It is a real relationship. Ans. A ref. p. 92 6. Dr. Jones is faced with the question of from whom or from what will the information in his medical research project be gathered. At what stage of the research design project has Dr. Jones found himself? a. purpose of research b. units of analysis c. motivations for research d. time dimension Ans. B, ref. 95-101 7. Jacob is at the final stage of his research project on famine. Which stage has Jacob reached? a. analysis b. operationalization c. data processing d. Application Ans. D, ref. p. 116 22 8. The topic of surrogate mothers interested Professor Snyder. Professor Snyder read the available materials on the topic and wanted to develop an age, education, and income profile of women who serve as surrogate mothers in Canada. In order to develop this profile, what type of study should Snyder undertake? a. a trend study b. a descriptive study c. an explanatory study d. a panel study Ans. B, ref. p. 88 9. Professor Dooley examined the literature on AIDS and could find nothing that examined children’s attitudes toward parents and friends with AIDS. What type of study should Dooley develop to further examine this topic? a. a panel study b. a descriptive study c. an exploratory study d. an explanatory study Ans. C, ref. p. 87-88 10. A researcher examined newspaper editorials from major Canadian cities that dealt with the topic of university grade inflation. What was the unit of analysis? a. grade inflation b. the major cities c. the newspapers d. the newspaper editorials Ans. D, ref. p. 95-101 23 11. Professor Root was studying the arrest rates for drunken driving in urban and rural areas of Ontario. He found that the arrest rate was higher in the rural areas. Professor Root concluded that people who live in rural areas are more likely to drive while intoxicated than are people who live in urban areas. What does Root’s conclusion illustrate? a. the ecological fallacy b. the individualistic fallacy c. good deductive reasoning d. the importance of trend studies Ans. A, ref. p. 101-103 12. What unit of analysis would a researcher use to conduct a study of women’s attitudes toward abortion? a. the individual b. attitudes c. each abortion d. the women’s attitudes Ans. A, ref. p. 95-101 13. Jasmine is confused by a report that claims that women are more likely to vote for Liberals than men. She is confused because her best friend, Selena, always votes Conservative. Which false criteria for nomothetic causality is Jasmine guilty of using? a. units of analysis b. majority of cases c. exceptional cases d. complete causation Ans. C, ref. p. 93 14. What type of design is a single Canadian census? a. a cross-sectional study b. a panel study c. a time series study d. a trend study Ans. A, ref. p. 103 24 15. Which of the following designs uncovers only net changes? a. cohort and trend studies b. trend and panel studies c. cohort and panel studies d. cohort and cross-sectional studies Ans. Ans. A, p. 107 16. Researcher John collects data from town hall records on the number of students in local schools and the average test performance of students in these schools. He wants to determine if there is a relationship between school size and average test performance at the school. What is John's unit of observation? a. groups b. social artifacts c. organizations d. Individuals Ans. B, ref. p. 95-101 17. Rosemary is conducting a study in which she intends to follow a random selection of teens over a five-year period. Each year she will randomly sample 300 individuals from a total of 25 high schools. What form of research is she performing? a. cohort study b. panel study c. trend study d. cross-sectional study Ans. A, ref. p. 105-106 18. What kind of relationship is the positive relationship between shoe size and IQ? a. causal b. negative c. spurious d. non-spurious Ans. C, ref. p. 92 25 19. Dr. Rafael has decided to further refine his research findings. He has chosen the smaller group that has been selected from a larger one for closer study. Which term describes the smaller research group? a. population b. Party c. Sample d. Subset Ans. C, ref. p. 114 20. In which step of a research study are data actually collected? a. observation b. sampling c. processing d. Analysis Ans. A, ref. p. 115 TRUE/FALSE 1. If two variables are correlated with each other, there must be a causal relationship between them. (Ans. F, ref. p. 91-92) 2. Social scientists perhaps most typically choose individuals as their units of analysis. (Ans. T, ref. p. 95) 3. Research designs are descriptive, explanatory, or exploratory—never more than one. (Ans. F, ref. p. 89). 4. A research proposal describes what you intend to accomplish and how. (Ans. T, ref. p. 117-118) 5. Answers to researchers' questions about experiences or events that happened a long time ago yield information that is sometimes called "retrospective data." (Ans. T, ref. p. 109) Short Answer Questions 1. What are the two models of explanation? How do they differ from each other? Give examples to support your answer. 2. What is the difference between a necessary and a sufficient cause? Give an example of each. 26 3. Discuss why the time element is important in research designs. Describe designs that make different use of the time element. Give examples of research studies employing the different designs. 4. Identify and give an example of any of the four units of analysis. Illustrate the ecological fallacy using your examples. 5. Given the downturn of the economy and the difficult financial times in which we are living and will continue to experience for the next few years, Professor Hirsh thought this will be a perfect time to trace the impact of economic recessions on the professional opportunities of those entering the labour force for the first time. He is interested in providing an aggregate picture of the labour participation and the employment opportunities available to those who are beginning to look for work in Canada. Since he predicts that the recession might last for almost a decade, he will likely be able to make his observations over an extended period of time. What time dimension design would you recommend to Professor Hirsh in order to document the effects of the economic decline on labour force participation? What would be the characteristics of his sample, and when would he observe it? 27 Chapter 5: Conceptualization, Operationationalization, Measurement MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which sequence illustrates the progression of measurement steps? a. conceptualization, nominal definition, operational definition, and measurements in the real world b. nominal definition, conceptualization, operational definition, and measurements in the real world c. operational definition, conceptualization, nominal definition, and measurements in the real world d. nominal definition, operationalization, conceptualization, and measurements in the real world e. conceptualization, operationalization, nominal definition, and measurements in the real world ANS: A REF: 131 2. Which term is used to explain the observation that acts as a bridge between what researchers can measure and what they cannot measure? a. an indicator b. a concept c. a direct observable d. an indirect observable ANS: A REF: p. 127 3. For her most current research on euthanasia, Instructor Jones decided to use the device that provides the most appropriate way to understand the data. Which device did Instructor Jones use? a. construct validity b. a scale c. an index d. a typology ANS: D REF: p. 153-154 28 4. Professor Spence decided to define socioeconomic status as a combination of income and education. She then determined the questions to be asked in a survey and the categories of responses. Which type(s) of definitions was/were Processor Spence assigning to socioeconomic status? a. a nominal definition only b. an operational and a real definition c. a real definition only d. a nominal and an operational definition ANS: D REF: p. 131 5. Why would most social scientists refuse to accept the conceptualization of IQ as foot size? a. because such a measurement would lack precision b. because such a measurement would lack reliability c. because such a measurement would lack accuracy d. because such a measurement would lack validity ANS: D REF: p. 147-150 6. Professor Oldman created a questionnaire containing the items height and weight, and each was followed by a blank space. The questionnaire instructed respondents to enter their current height and weight in the appropriate spaces. In observing the respondents’ answers to these questions, what is Professor Oldman measuring? a. direct observables b. indirect observables c. constructs d. a nominal variable ANS: B REF: p. 126 29 7. How do social researchers explain the concept of a nominal definition? a. as a statement of the essential nature of some entity b. as a statement detailing what will be involved in measuring some entity c. as a statement that allows us to observe some entity d. as a statement that assigns a definition to a concept ANS: D REF: p. 130 8. You are measuring how people feel about proposed income tax hikes, but you really want to know how well informed they are on the proposal. How do you solve this operationalization problem? a. by using single or multiple indicators b. by determining how observations are going to be made c. by explaining the specific dimensions of the variable to be studied d. by defining the relevant range of variations ANS: C REF: p. 128, 137 9. Professor Tyler wrote a proposal to study the impact of authoritarianism on child rearing practices. She began her research by reviewing the meaning of authoritarianism in the sociological and psychological literature. Based on this review, she formulated her own definition of authoritarianism. What does this process illustrate? a. operationalization b. the interchangeability of indicators c. conceptualization d. validity assessment ANS: C REF: p. 127 10. Which type of variable is employment? a. a ratio variable b. an interval variable c. an ordinal variable d. a nominal variable ANS: D REF: p. 138 30 11. Professor Tilton measured the variable feelings toward women in combat with the categories strongly agree, agree, indifferent, disagree, and strongly disagree. Which level of measurement was Professor Tilton using? a. nominal level b. interval level c. ratio level d. ordinal level ANS: D REF: p. 138-139 12. What is the lowest level of measurement in which there is an exact difference between attribute values? a. nominal level b. interval level c. ratio level d. ordinal level ANS: B REF: p. 139 13. Researchers sometimes fall into the trap of believing that terms have real meanings. When this occurs, what phrase describes the inaccurate thought process of the researcher? a. using reification b. using measurements that lack reliability c. using measurements that lack validity d. confusing reliability with validity ANS: A REF: p. 127 14. Dr. Hannah is writing his thesis research project on the topic of generosity. In order to produce accurate research, he must further identify generosity in terms of benevolence, hospitality, and unselfishness. Which aspect of a concept is Dr. Hannah using? a. reification b. dimension c. indicator d. specification ANS: B REF: p. 128 31 15. How did Abraham Kaplan define a direct observable? a. as something someone can see and feel directly b. as something an individual can simply feel c. as something an individual can measure directly d. as something an individual can see simply and directly ANS: D REF: p. 126 TRUE/FALSE 1. Both scales and indexes are ordinal examples of variables. ANS: T REF: p. 151 2. Validity refers to the link between the operational and conceptual definitions. ANS: T REF: p. 147-148 3. Precision and accuracy are synonyms. ANS: F REF: p. 144 4. It is impossible to have several indicators of only one concept. ANS: F REF: p. 127-128 5. Changing definitions almost inevitably results in different descriptive conclusions. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: p. 135 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 1. Select one of the following concepts. How would you conceptualize it? What indicators would you use to measure the concept? Are there dimensions to the concept? A. alienation B. poverty C. modernization D. child abuse 32 Suggested ANS: Answers may vary. For example, let’s choose child abuse. One possible answer is that child abuse refers to the mistreatment of a minor by his/her parent or guardian. Dimensions of child abuse include physical abuse, emotional abuse, and psychological abuse. Indicators might include: 1. Have you ever been slapped by a parent? (Yes/No); 2. Have you ever been beaten by a parent with a whip or belt? (Yes/No); 3. Have you ever been told that you were stupid by your mother/father? (Yes/No), etc. 2. According to Abraham Kaplan (1964), there are three classes of items/things that scientists measure. List and describe these three classes of items/things. The three classes of items/things are: 1. direct observables (those things we can observe rather simply and directly, like the colour of an apple or the check mark made in a questionnaire); 2. indirect observables (requires “relatively more subtle, complex, or indirect observations,” such as a person’s check mark beside female in a questionnaire and have indirectly observed that person’s gender); and 3. constructs (theoretical creations that are based on observations but they cannot be observed directly or indirectly, such as IQ). 3. How would you measure family size at the nominal, ordinal, and ratio levels? Suggested ANS: Nominal: 1) Are there other people (besides you) in your immediate family? (Yes/No); or 2) Do you have any brothers? (Yes/No) Ordinal: 1) How many people (excluding yourself) are in your immediate (nuclear, family of orientation)? 2) Use attributes of (less than 3), (3–6), and (more than 6), or small, medium, and large Ratio: 1) How many people (excluding yourself) are in your immediate (nuclear, family of orientation)? (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …) 33 4. Consider the topic of ethics in social research. Explain, in your opinion, why ethical considerations are so important in social research. Suggested ANS: Answers will vary. Students should mention that ethics are an evolving field, and are very individualized. However, there are trade-offs that must be made between choosing the “better” measure and choosing the more ethical measure. Many of the topics studied in social science research are considered to be sensitive, and could cause pain or trauma to respondents. Also, the validity and reliability of a measure must be weighed against the potential harm, inconvenience, and intrusion these measures might have on those whom they wish to study. 34 Chapter 6: Sampling MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which statement best describes nonprobability sampling? a. It always produces samples that have distorted characteristics relative to the population. b. It denies the researcher the use of statistical theory to estimate the probability of correct inferences. c. It requires the use of sampling frames. d. It includes stratified sampling. ANS: B REF: p. 163 - 166 2. In general, what occurs as sample size increases? a. the standard error increases in size b. the standard error decreases in size c. the standard error remains the same regardless of changes in sample size d. the standard error is a constant ANS: B REF: p. 177 3. What happens when a researcher draws a judgmental sample? a. It allows researchers to use their prior knowledge about the topic. b. It enlists the aid of uninformed respondents. c. It results in a sample that has no researcher bias. d. It ensures a representative sample. ANS: A REF: p. 163 4. Which term refers to the unit about which information is collected and which provides the basis of analysis? a. a universe b. a population c. an element d. a sampling frame ANS: C REF: p. 169 35 5. Through a review of records, Shania was able to determine that the mean age of the population she was studying was 26.7 years. What type of description is this? a. a statistic b. an inference c. a parameter d. a variable ANS: C REF: p. 171 6. Dr. Smith instructs his graduate students to put together a sample for an upcoming research study of high school students. He asks the graduate students to stand outside the student union hall to solicit participants and find 50 students from each of grades 9 through 12. What sort of sampling method is being used? a. simple random sampling b. quota sampling c. cluster sampling d. stratified sampling ANS: B REF: p. 165 7. A researcher discovers that 10 percent of the households in a particular city are headed by a single person and that 90 percent of the families are husband–wife families. The researcher sends out interviewers and tells them to conduct 80 interviews, 10 percent of which should be with families that are headed by a single person, and 90 percent of which should be with husband– wife families. What type of strategy is the researcher using? a. simple random sampling b. quota sampling c. cluster sampling d. systematic sampling ANS: B REF: p. 165-166 36 8. Refer to the above, what would be an appropriate strategy to use if the researcher wanted to do probability sampling? a. simple random sampling b. quota sampling c. cluster sampling d. stratified sampling ANS: D REF: p. 185-187 9. What type of sampling should be used to obtain the same size sample from strata of varying sizes? a. simple random sampling b. systematic sampling c. proportionate sampling d. disproportionate sampling ANS: D REF: p. 192-194 10. What is a study population? a. the theoretical and hypothetical aggregation of all elements as defined for a given survey b. the theoretical specified aggregation of survey elements c. that aggregation of elements from which the sample is actually selected d. that aggregation of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling ANS: C REF: p. 170 11. Which type of sampling chooses every kth element in a list? a. simple random sampling b. systematic sampling c. disproportionate sampling d. cluster sampling ANS: B REF: p. 182 37 Smith took a random start between 1 and 20 and then took every 20th element from the sampling frame. Smith learned that 40 percent of the sample believed the company’s president was doing a good job. 12. The calculated standard error of the above was 3 percent. What does this mean? a. Between 37 percent and 43 percent of the employees believe the president is doing a good job. b. Researchers are 95 percent certain that between 37 percent and 43 percent of the employees believe the president is doing a good job. c. Researchers are 68 percent certain that between 37 percent and 43 percent of the employees believe the president is doing a good job. d. Researchers are 99 percent certain that between 37 percent and 43 percent of the employees believe the president is doing a good job. ANS: C REF: p. 177-178 13. Refer to the above, what is the sampling scheme used in this research study? a. systematic b. stratified c. simple random d. quota ANS: A REF: p. 182 14. A researcher uses a list of registered voters as a sampling frame, and selects every 5th person on the randomized list. What kind of sampling is he using? a. stratified b. simple random c. systematic d. multistage cluster ANS: C REF: p. 182 15. You are conducting a research study about how well federal prisons are operating. Besides the current inmates themselves, who would be the most appropriate informant? a. the spouse of an inmate b. the federal justice minister c. a recently released prisoner d. the prison’s warden ANS: C REF: p. 166 38 16. Why are probability samples an advantage for the researcher? a. The method used to select them is random and provides no bias for the sample b. Random selection provides no bias, and therefore the accuracy or representativeness is not a concern to the researcher c. The method used to select them limits conscious and unconscious sampling bias and the accuracy or representativeness of the sample can be estimated d. They are all perfectly representative of the population from which they are drawn ANS: C REF: p. 167-179 17. What tool does a social researcher use to establish quota sampling? a. a typology b. a matrix c. an index d. a scale ANS: B REF: p. 165 18. Dr. Massri wants to complete a research study on the political affiliations of his fellow citizens in Egypt. Which type of sampling would give Dr. Massri the most appropriate results, especially since Dr. Massri is Egyptian? a. quota sampling b. non-probability sampling c. snowball sampling d. purposive sampling ANS: D REF: p. 163 19. What are the two basic steps required in multistage cluster sampling? a. sample selection and recording b. compiling and choosing c. listing and sampling d. designing and sampling ANS: C REF: p. 189