BIOS 252 Midterm Exam 2023 / BIOS252 Midterm Exam (Review and Essay Question Answer) Anatomy and Physiology II with Lab: Chamberlain College of Nursing A&P 1 Midterm Study Guide

lOMoARcPSD|lOMoARcPSD| BIOS 252 Midterm Exam 2023 / BIOS252 Midterm Exam (Review and Essay Question Answer) Anatomy and Physiology II with Lab: Chamberlain College of Nursing A&P 1 Midterm Study Guide Exam Format: 35 Multiple choice @ 3 pts 4 Pick all that apply @ 5 pts 15 Fill in the blank @ 2 pts 1 essay @ 15 pts Ch. 1 Anatomy • “Cutting things up.” Structure of the body and how the parts relate to each other in space. Physiology • “Study of nature.” Function of a living organism, how it works, and maintains life. Levels of organization (molecular, cellular, tissue level, etc.) • Chemical/molecular level: atoms and molecules • Cellular level: cells – basic structural unit of life, smallest living unit • Tissue level: tissues are groups of cells that work together to perform a particular function • Organ Level: organ is a collection of tissues • Organ System: several levels • Organism level: the human body Homeostasis (give examples, thermoregulation, water regulation, blood pressure regulation) • Condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment, and maintained by regulatory processes. • Survival of our body cells is dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their surrounding fluid o Fluid known as extracellular fluid, and fluid that fills narrow spaces between cells is interstitial fluid. ▪ Other types are blood plasma, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, aqueous humor, and vitreous body. • Internal conditions are in a dynamic equilibrium; set point (like thermostat in house)lOMoARcPSD| • Essential for maintenance of life; death and disease • Homeostatic control loop; receptor, control center and effector • Negative Feedback: works to oppose change, brings condition back to a set point. i.e. – blood pressure • Positive Feedback: works to enhance change, brings condition further away from a set point. i.e. – childbirth, blood clotting. Things that don’t occur a lot. • Water Regulation: kidneys and water balance concentration of mineral ions in the blood, get rid of waste products, especially nitrogen-containing compound called urea. o Can also be excreted, and removes heat from the body when a person sweats, helping regulate body temp. 1 1lOMoARcPSD| Body cavities • Cranial cavity: formed by cranial bones and contains brain • Vertebral canal: formed by vertebral column, contains spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves. • Thoracic cavity: chest cavity, contains pleural and pericardial cavities and the mediastinum. • Pleural cavity: space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung. • Pericardial cavity: space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart. • Mediastinum: central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs. Extends from sternum to vertebral column and from first rib to diaphragm; contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels. • Abdominopelvic cavity: subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities • Abdominal cavity: contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine; the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is the peritoneum. • Pelvic cavity: contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, and internal organs of reproduction. Serous membranes • Thin, slippery, 2 layers (pericardium and pleura [heart and lungs]) • Peritoneum, covers many of the abdominal organs • Visceral membrane: covers the organs • Parietal layer: lines abdominal wall. Directional terms • Cranial (up towards head) & Caudal (towards bum) • Anterior/Ventral (front of body) & Posterior/Dorsal (towards back) • Medial (middle of body) & Lateral (away from middle) • Superior (towards head) & Inferior (towards feet) • Proximal (towards location) & Distal (away from location) Sections (planes) of the body • Transverse (horizontal): top & bottom cut of body • Sagittal: right and left cut of body o Midsagittal: cut through midline o Parasagittal: cut down middle, away from midline • Frontal/Coronal: front and back cut of body • Oblique: diagonal cut of body part Major characteristics of life • Metabolism: sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body • Responsiveness: detect and respond to stimuli • Movement: of molecules, cells, organslOMoARcPSD| • Growth: increase in cell size and body size • Differentiation: stem cell (unspecialized) > specific cell (specialized) • Reproduction: formation of new cells or production of a new individual Ch. 2 Metabolism (catabolism, anabolism) • Sum of all chemical reactions in the body • Catabolism: breaking apart molecules, release energy • Anabolism: building up, making a new molecule, use energy Structure of atoms (subatomic particles and their functions) • Units of matter of all chemical elements are atoms. An element is a quantity of matter composed of atoms of the same type. o Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of the element • Subatomic particles: compose individual atoms o Protons: positively charged protons located within nucleus o Neutrons: uncharged, located within the nucleus o Electrons: tiny, negatively charged electrons Atomic # • Number of protons = atomic number • Number of electrons = number of protons ATP • Principal energy-storing molecule in the body, ‘energy currency.’ • Hydrolysis of ATP to remove the third P, releases stored energy to power cellular activities, becomes ADP 3 types of bonds that can form between molecules and their characteristics • Ionic Bonds: two atoms gaining/loosing electrons to complete their outer shell o Donation/acceptance of electrons pulls atoms together to create the ionic bond o Force that hold ions with opposite charges together 3lOMoARcPSD| • Covalent Bonds: two or more atoms of same or different element share electrons o Most common bond in body, very strong, single, double, and triple bonds o Nonpolar: electrons in a covalent bond can be shared equally between atoms o Polar: electrons shared unequally between atoms, one pulls them more strongly toward itself. • Hydrogen Bonds: result of polar covalent bonds, weak but important (protein structure, water, nucleic acids.) o Partial positive charge of hydrogen attracts a partial negative charge of another molecule. o Attraction of oppositely charged parts of molecules Major and minor elements that compose the human body • Major elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen • Minor elements: calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium • Trace elements: iodine, iron, copper pH scale • Acidity is lower, alkalinity is higher. Scale is 0-14 • 7 is neutral • Gastric fluid, hydrochloric acid is 0 and 1 • Over cleaner, sodium hydroxide is 13 and 14 • Blood is just over 7 Water molecule • Most important and abundant inorganic compound in living systems • Polarity of water allows water molecules stick together • Excellent solvent for ionic or polar substances due to unequal charge distribution and bent shape of the polar covalent bond • Dissolve hydrophilic substances, but not hydrophobic (nonpolar covalent bonds) • Has high heat capacity and high heat of vaporization • Water is the ideal medium – hydrolysis, water is added to break; dehydration, water is removed to make bonds 4lOMoARcPSD| Nucleic acids • Huge organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous. • Basic units of nucleic acids are nucleotides, composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose, sugar, and a phosphate group • DNA: forms genetic code, regulates most of the activities that take place in our cells throughout a lifetime • RNA: relays instructions from the genes in the cell’s nucleus to guide each cells assembly of amino acids into proteins by the ribosomes. Bases found in DNA vs. RNA • DNA: Adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine – AT CG • RNA: adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil – AU CG Carbohydrates: examples, functions • Most of the energy needed for life • MONOsaccharides: glucose (main blood sugar,) fructose (fruits,) galactose (milk sugar,) deoxyribose (in DNA,) ribose (in RNA) • Disaccharides: sucrose (glucose + fructose,) lactose (glucose + galactose,) maltose (glucose + glucose) • POLYsaccharides: glycogen (in animals,) starch (in plants,) cellulose (can’t be digested by humans) Structure of phospholipids • Major lipid component of all cell membranes, and amphipathic: polar and nonpolar regions • Structure consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid ‘tails’ and a hydrophilic ‘head’ Enzymes • A catalyst in a living cell; highly specific, extremely efficient, subject to cellular controls • Names of enzymes usually end in the suffix -ase : oxidase, kinase, lipase • Speed up chemical reactions by increasing frequency of collisions, lowering the activation energy and properly orienting the colliding molecules 5lOMoARcPSD| Factors that affect the speed of chemical reactions • Nature of the reactants • Particle size of the reactants • Concentration of the reactants • Pressure of gaseous reactants • Temperature • catalysts Ch. 3 The phases of the cell cycle • Interphase (longest phase) o G1 ▪ Cell is metabolically active, duplicating organelles, and cytosolic components except for DNA. 8-10 hours. o S ▪ DNA replicated. 8 hours o G2. 4-6 hours. ▪ Cell growth continues and the cell completes its preparation for cell division • Mitosis – nuclear division; distribution of two sets of chromosomes, one set into each of two separate nuclei o PMAT Phases of mitosis (describe events at each stage) • Prophase: chromatin condenses and shortens into chromosomes • Metaphase: centromeres line up at the exact center of mitotic spindle, aka metaphase plate or equatorial plane region • Anaphase: the splitting and separation of centromeres and the movement of the two sister chromatids of each pair toward opposite poles of the cell • Telophase: begins as soon as chromatid movement stops. Identical sets of chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell uncoil and revert to their threadlike chromatin form, microtubules disappear or change form, a new nuclear envelope forms, new nucleoli appear, and the new mitotic spindle eventually breaks. Plasma membrane structure and function • Flexible yet sturdy barrier made of lipids and proteins, separates inside (cytoplasm) from outside (extracellular fluid) 6lOMoARcPSD| • Controls what goes in and out of cell, and identifies the cells and communicates with other cells. • Selectively permeable to ions Transmembrane protein functions • Act as channels or transporters increase the permeability of the membrane to molecules that cannot cross the lipid bilayer. Enzyme function • Used to break down. Serve a wide range of important functions in the body, such as metabolism, oxidize substances. Cilia and flagella • Cilia: numerous, short, hairlike projections extending from the surface of a cell and functioning to move materials across the surface of the cell • Flagella: much longer than cilia, usually moving an entire cell. i.e. sperm cell tail Cell organelles (functions and identification) • Centrosomes: dense areas of cytoplasm containing centrioles • Centrioles: paired cylinders arranged at right angles to another, serve as centers for organizing microtubules in interphase cells and the mitotic spindle during cell division. • Cilia: numerous, short, hairlike projections extending from the surface of a cell and functioning to move materials across the surface of the cell • Flagella: much longer than cilia, usually moving an entire cell. Ex. Sperm tail • Ribosomes: tiny spheres consisting of ribosomal RNA and several ribosomal proteins, occur free or together with endoplasmic reticulum. Site of protein synthesis. • Endoplasmic Reticulum: network of membranes that form flattened sacs or tubules called cisterns. o Rough ER: continuous with nuclear membrane and has its outer surface studded with ribosomes o Smooth ER: forms a network of membrane tubules but does not contain ribosomes on its membrane surface • Golgi Complex: four to six stacked, flattened membranous sacs. Function is to process, sort, and deliver proteins and lipids to the plasma membrane, lysosomes, and secretory vesicles. • Lysosomes: membrane enclosed vesicles that form in the Golgi complex, containing powerful digestive enzymes. Function in intracellular digestion, digestion of cellular contents during embryological development, and extracellular digestion. 7lOMoARcPSD| • Peroxisomes: smaller than lysosomes, contain enzymes that use molecular oxygen to oxidize various organic substances. • Mitochondria: bound by double membrane, site of ATP production, self-replicating. Histones • Help organize the DNA strand. Group of basic proteins found in chromatin. Tonicity of solutions and their effects of body cells • Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution influences the shape of body cells. o Isotonic solution = RBC maintain normal shape o Hypotonic solution = RBC hemolyze o Hypertonic solution = RBC crenate Transcription and translation • Transcription: process by which genetic information encoded in DNA is copied onto a strand of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) • Translation: process of reading the mRNA nucleotide sequence to determine the amino acid sequence of the protein. Diffusion • Random mixing of particles that occurs in a solution as a result of the kinetic energy of the particles. • Rate of diffusion is influenced by several factors: steepness of the concentration gradient, temperature, mass of diffusing substance, surface area, and diffusion distance. 8lOMoARcPSD| • Simple Diffusion: passive process where substances move freely across plasma membrane o Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules, and small uncharged polar molecules • Facilitated Diffusion: transmembrane proteins help solutes that are too polar or too highly charged move through lipid bilayer o Channel mediated facilitated diffusion (ion channels, can be opened or closed) o Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion (carrier proteins change shape) Osmosis • Net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration. Types of transport through the cell membrane • Primary Active Transport: energy derived from ATP changes the shape of a transporter protein which pumps a substance across a plasma membrane against its concentration gradient. • Secondary Active Transport: energy stored (in a hydrogen or sodium concentration gradient) is used to drive other substances against their own concentration gradients. • Active Transport in Vesicles o Endocytosis: cell takes up specific ligands that bind to a cell surface receptor into a vesicle o Phagocytosis: cell engulfs large particles such as old cell parts, viruses, bacteria; used by many immune system cells o Pinocytosis: cells take up small droplets’ extracellular fluid, no receptors involved o Exocytosis: membrane enclosed secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents into the extracellular fluid o Transcytosis: combo of endocytosis and exocytosis used to move substances from one side of a cell, across it, and out the other side. Ch. 4 Tissue definition • Group of similar cells that usually have a similar embryological origin and are specialized for a particular function. 4 main tissues types in the body (how to identify them, functions, structures, characteristics of each tissue) • Epithelial tissue: covers body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts, forms glands. 9lOMoARcPSD| o Simple Squamous: single, flat layer of cells. Diffusion and filtration. Found in lungs and kidneys. o Simple Cuboidal: single, cube like layer of cells. Secretion and absorption o Simple Columnar: single, rectangular shape layer of cells o Pseudostratified: one layer looks like multiple. Sweep away mucous. o Stratified Squamous: multiple, flat cells. Skin o Stratified Cuboidal: multiple, cube layers. Protective. o Stratified Columnar: multiple, columns. Protection, Secretion. o Transitional: several layers that stretch. Bladder and ureters. • Connective tissue: protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy reserved as fat, and provides immunity. o Loose connective tissue: all 3 fibers, several types of cells, and semifluid ground substance. o Areolar Connective Tissue: aids passage of nutrients from the blood vessels of the connective tissue into adjacent cells and tissues. o Adipose Connective Tissue: consists of adipocytes specialized for storage of triglycerides. Reduces heat loss, energy storage, supports, protects. o Reticular Connective Tissue: fine interlacing reticular fibers and reticular cells. Stroma of certain cells, helps bind together the cells of smooth muscle. o Dense Regular Connective Tissue: consists of bundles of collagen fibers in a regular and orderly, parallel arrangement that confers great strength. o Dense Irregular Connective Tissue: contains collagen fibers that are irregularly arranged and found in parts of the body where tensions are exerted in various directions. o Elastic Connective Tissue: elastic fibers and fibroblasts, quite strong, recoil back to its original shape. Found in lung tissue and elastic arteries. o Bone: consists of a matrix containing mineral salts and collagenous fibers and cells called osteocytes. o Cartilage: dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers. ▪ Hyaline Cartilage: most abundant but weakest type. Flexible and supportive at joints, reduces friction and absorbs shock. ▪ Fibrocartilage: bundles of collagen fibers. Strength and rigidity, strongest of 3 types. ▪ Elastic Cartilage: strength and elasticity, maintains shape of certain organs. • Muscle tissue: responsible for movement and generation of force, and heat production. o Skeletal Muscle: attached to bones, striated, voluntary o Cardiac Muscle: forms heart wall, striated, involuntary o Smooth Muscle: found in hollow internal structures (blood vessels and viscera,) nonstriated, involuntary 10lOMoARcPSD| • Nervous tissue: initiates and transmits action potentials (nerve impulse) that help coordinate body activities o Neurons: consist of body, dendrites, axons. Sensitive to stimuli, convert stimuli into nerve impulses, and conduct nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands. o Neuroglia: protect and support neurons and often sites of tumors of the nervous system. Identification of histological tissue slides • **Look at notecards with slide** Cell to cell junctions (functions) • Tight Junctions: fluid-tight seals, common among epithelial cells. Proteins are thread. • Adherens Junctions: made of plaque and anchor cells together. Belt of microfilaments. • Desmosomes: linked by transmembrane glycoproteins that extend across a gap between adjacent cell membranes and link to cytoskeletons of cells together. Anchor proteins together. • Hemidesmosomes: half, snap to basement membrane. • Gap Junctions: allows cells to rapidly communicate through connexins, transmembrane protein channels that connect cells together. Glandular tissues • Mixture of both endocrine (ductless, hormones are secreted into the blood) and exocrine (have ducts, hormones are secreted surfaces) glands. • Gland is a single cell or a mass of epithelial cell adapted for secretion. Endocrine vs exocrine glands • Endocrine: ductless, secretory products (hormones) enter the extracellular fluid and diffuse into the blood. • Exocrine: sweat, oil, digestive glands; secrete their products into ducts that empty at the surface of covering and lining epithelium or directly onto a free surface. Modes of exocrine gland secretion • Merocrine: form secretory products and discharge it by exocytosis • Apocrine: secretary product at apical surface of secreting cell. Portion pinches off from the rest of the cell to form secretion within remaining part of cell repairing itself and repeating the process. • Holocrine: secretory product in the cytosol, cell dies, cell replaced with new one. 11lOMoARcPSD| Types of membranes found in the body • Epithelial Membranes o Mucous membranes: Line cavities that open to the exterior, such as gastrointestinal tract. o Serous membranes: Lines body cavity that doesn’t open directly to the exterior and covers the organs that lie within the cavity. Ex – pericardium, peritoneum, pleura. o Cutaneous membranes: skin, covers the outside of the body. • Synovial membranes: joint cavities, bursae, and tendon sheaths and don’t contain epithelium; they also secrete a lubricating synovial fluid. 12BIOS 252 Midterm Exam Essay Question Chapter 10 & 11 1. Identify&describe intracellular structures (organelles, myofilaments, ect.) of a muscle cell. Contrast skeletal, cardiac&smooth. 2. Describe all phases of twitch. 3. Outline the sequence of physiological events of a twitch starting at the motor neurons&ending with movement. 4. Describe a neuromuscular junction&identify all major components. 5. Describe the connective tissue “packaging” of muscle. 6. Describe the major functions of the three types of muscles&the differences between them. 7. Describe how skeletal muscles acting across synovial joints function as a lever system. Discriminate between 1st class, 2nd class&3rd class levers in the human body(provide an example of each) 8. Differentiate between isotonic, isometric, eccentric&concentric contractions. 9. Identify the muscles involved in relaxed&forced breathing&describe their role. Chapter 12 1. Identify the anatomy of a neuron 2. Describe the functional&structural classification of neurons. 3. Identify&describe the major divisions of the nervous system. 4. List&describe the function/location of all neuroglia cells 5. Explain how excitatory&inhibitory neurotransmitters work on the postsynaptic membrane&give one example of each. 6. Describe all steps of an action potential, including initiation by local potential. 7. Understand the mechanism of IPSPs&EPSPs. Chapter 13 1. Describe the basic anatomy of a spinal cord section, indicating the functional significance of each area/major tract. 2. Explain the similarities&differences of a spinal withdrawal reflex&a crossed extensor reflex.BIOS 252 Midterm Review 1. T Tubules are extensions of the in skeletal muscle? 2. CN III innervates with of of the following muscle? 3. The brain&spinal chord are part of the nervous system? 4. A wheelbarrow is an example of a class lever? 5. The muscle contraction pulling on its insertion point, corresponds to what part of the lever system? 6. A synovial joint corresponds to what part of the lever stem? 7. When would voltage-gated Sodium channels open rapidly? 8. Which of the following muscle closes the lips? 9. Synergists prevent unwanted movements during an action, or aid the agonist during the movement. 10. EPSP stands for 11. EPSPs occur when 12. The Platysma muscle is a muscle of mastication 13. The type of muscle contraction where the muscle contracts but exhibits no change in length is called 14. Calcium is released from the SR when an action potential opens gated ion channels located in the 15. The neurotransmitter found at synapses between the motor neurons&human skeletal muscles, or at the neuromuscular junction is 16. The neurotransmitters that function primarily in the CNS are dopamine&serotonin 17. A propagated change in the membrane potential of part of the cell membrane is an action potential 18. A chemical synapse is most likely to dominate which system? FUNCTION MEANS ACTION Short answer: • Has to do with muscle contraction&sliding filaments• Identifying&describing the major divisions of the nervous system • Classes of the glial cells • Major functions of the muscular system o (3 different levers) 14 pictures total 3 sarcomere pictures 3 pictures of a neuron 1 picture of the eye Parts of a sarcomere Parts of a neuron CNS vs PNS • glial cells within the PNS o Schwann o Satellite • Glial cells within the CNS o Astrocytes o Oligodendrocytes o Epedymel o Microglial Muscles to know Lattisumysdorsae Biceps Traps External Oblique Rectus abdominals Sartorius Rectus femoris (flex the hip) (extend the knee) Hamstrings (all of them) extend the hip or flexing the knee Vastuslateralus Vastusmedialus Tibialus anterior Ankles dorsae flex, plantar flex Gastrocnemius (lateral&medial heads) (planter flex) Sternonucleoidmastoid Pectoralis major&minor 4 muscles of mastication: LR6SO4 OVER 3