Topic 1.2 - Assess the usefulness of investigative techniques in criminal investigations (20 marks, 100 mins)
Intelligence Databases
Police National Computer (PNC) - Contains criminal records and shares them across the UK, it’s used by law enforcement agencies such as the police to
support them during investigations that are occurring nationally, regionally, or locally. Originally only stored information on stolen vehicles but has
expanded to now store information on arrests, fingerprints, cautions, convictions, missing people, DNA, vehicle information on UK registered vehicles,
wanted people, disqualified drivers and those who have driving licences on over 48 million people. Name, gender, ethnicity and date of birth of the
individual can also be accessed. Around 13 million individual’s records. Details of all recordable offences are held until the person is 100 years old.
Police National Database - Connects law enforcement organisations, allowing them to share information on crime electronically. Contains intelligence
about suspected criminal activity as well as the data on the Police National Computer. It was created due to the severe errors that let Ian Huntley to
reoffend, murdering two ten-year-old girls, known as the Soham murders. Geographical boundaries and lack of communication between police forces, the
allegations against Ian Huntley, which involved underage girls, were not shared to all police forces a year before he committed the murders. This meant
Cambridgeshire police force had no knowledge of these allegations so didn’t suspect that he was a danger to the public. It contains 3.5 billion searchable
records of suspects involved in crime. 20 Million records are added every month, it includes 220 databases and has 12,000 users. Main purpose is to
contribute to the safeguarding of children and vulnerable people, preventing organised crime and reducing the threat presented by terrorism. Records on
the PND are not used as evidence in court.
National DNA Database - Setup in 1995 and as of 2023 has more than 5.9 million DNA profiles collected from around 647,000 crime scenes .Individual
samples are obtained from DNA evidence taken from a crime scene such as hair or saliva and is then stored in a computer. Has the ability to place an
individual at the scene of a crime by matching the profile on the database to the DNA profile found at the scene. Most countries have a DNA Database
which can be shared with other countries for making comparisons, this is useful if someone does not come from the country they committed the crime in.
Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 from concerns about human rights means DNA must be destroyed if a suspect is completely innocent, if arrested but
not charged, or charged but not convicted. Can only be held for 3 years then it must be deleted.
Crimint and the Gangs Matrix - information on criminals, suspects and protesters. Holds information on gang members and those suspected, also of
gang signs and tattoos. Tattoos are photographed and stored so they can be safeguarded in prison.
International database - UK police can share information with different countries. Includes INTERPOL databases on child sexual exploitation, biometric
records (DNA and fingerprints), stolen property, firearms and organised crime networks.
Strengths
Police National Computer
Available 24 hours a day, providing quick access to information concerning national and local security and has links to European databases to allow
sharing of information internationally. Contains several databases which show real time checks on people, vehicles, properties, drivers and crimes,
,providing information to support the police in their investigation. Saves time and resources, making it a useful investigative technique. Police can upload
information concerning a vehicle or the owner of a vehicle. For example, this may occur when a vehicle is stolen, the owners are missing or police believe
the owners are involved in criminal activity. Useful information in an investigation as neighbouring police forces can be notified and the vehicle may
contain evidence which can support the police in solving the crime once found. Police can use this intelligence database to help them throughout
investigations such as informing them of any previous convictions which could be useful to help the police narrow down suspects and provide evidence of a
person’s character when trying to secure a conviction for the crime being investigated. Database is also used by the Crown Courts to check if any
potential jurors have a criminal record, which would mean they are unsuitable to participate in the trial.
Police National Database
Information stored contains convicted criminals, suspects and victims of crime, allegations against a person and number of convictions as well as the
details of people who have been questioned by police but not charged which is useful information. As information can be shared electronically, overcomes
barriers caused by location and the issue of postage of information delaying the investigation, as it can now be received immediately. Reduces the problem
of police failing to disclose details of allegations as all police forces can access this information now about any suspect they are concerned with. Should
reduce the chance of people becoming victims of a repeat offender as information is no longer kept by separate police forces, police forces can now access
information held by each other.
National DNA Database
Can help police solve crime by leading them to certain suspects, for example by tracing offenders via DNA and quickly searching for a match on the
database. Can be used as part of evidence in court to prove the suspect is guilty. Also helps police find links between different crime scenes.
Case study – Sally Bowman - Murdered 10 yards from her front door, she was brutally attacked. Attacker was armed with a knife and stabbed her
seven times and raped her. In the morning a neighbour who heard the screams found Sally Anne’s body in a pool of blood. Later, Mark Dixie had a
violent outburst when a man spilt his pint over him in a pub. It happened in front of two police support officers, Mark was arrested and taken to
Crawley police station. Here he was processed, and a DNA swab taken. When his sample was uploaded to the National DNA database, it notified police of
a match to the crime scene of the murder. Dixie has previously entered a plea of ‘not guilty’. However, a forensic scientist informs the jury that there is a
billion to one chance that the DNA found on Sally Anne’s body is not from Dixie. Mark Dixie may never have been caught if the National DNA database
didn’t find the match which alerted the police.
Case study – David Fuller - The National DNA database helped identify him as responsible for the murder of two women, who he murdered 5 months
apart in 1987. Also confessed to sexually assaulting nearly 80 corpses in the morgue of the hospital where he worked as an engineer. At the time of the
murders, the National DNA database didn’t exist as it was only developed in 1995, and the forensic samples were poor. In 1999 a forensic sample from
the first victim’s body was enhanced by forensic scientists, this DNA sample was then checked for matches on the National DNA database and
narrowed down potential suspects to 90 people, this enabled the police and detectives to identify a relative of David Fuller which led them to David Fuller
himself. Fingerprint evidence was also important in this case, a fingerprint found in blood on a plastic bag in the first victim’s accommodation matched
Fuller. David Fuller was then arrested, and a DNA sample was taken from him and it was found to match the murderer’s.
Weaknesses
Police National Computer
Only presents text so doesn’t contain any images of offenders. Can result in police confusing people together because they have similar names. This error
, can result in convictions being recorded against the wrong person. At the beginning of 2021 it was found that around 213,000 offence records, 175,000
arrest records and 15,000 person records which contain the name and date of birth amongst other personal details about an individual were all deleted
from the Police National Computer in an error. Shows the fragility of the system as technical errors can erase important details that could have been
key in solving an investigation. Could be problematic if the data is inaccurate. Might produce false leads or even miscarriages of justice. Data could be
misused by corrupt officers e.g. in the USA an officer used a vehicle database to locate and stalk women.
Police National Database
Are ethical issues surrounding the information stored on the database. Concerns that innocent people will have their information stored as details of
people who have been questioned by police but not charged are kept on it.
National DNA Database
Risk of data abuse, threatening the public’s right to privacy. A DNA sample can reveal very personal and sensitive information about a person such as
how susceptible they are to disease. The Protection of Freedoms Bill was introduced in the UK in 2012 to manage the human right to privacy being
threatened from data abuse. Contamination of evidence is still possible which could result in miscarriages of justice by wrongfully placing someone at the
scene of a crime they were not responsible for. Possibility that partial DNA matches may be used from a crime scene if police are unable to find a match
which could lead to people being wrongly accused.
Forensics
Scientific techniques and tests which are used in criminal investigations for violent or property crimes. Includes DNA, Blood evidence (splatter patterns),
hair and fibres, footprint matching, semen, skin flakes & fingerprints. Crime scene contains lots of physical evidence that can help police in their
investigation and CSI is responsible for collecting and documenting the evidence from the scene. Involves taking photographs of the crime scene, of
exhibits and taking notes. A common approach path, which is where stepping plates are used when the CSI’s collect evidence, is used to preserve the
evidence. The evidence collected is put into specimen bags and then sent to the laboratory for analysis by forensic specialists and forensic scientists who
can notify the police of any significant findings that would help the investigation progress to ultimately find the offender.
DNA Evidence
Made in 1985 by Alec Jeffreys. Advances in techniques used to extract and analyse DNA have helped increase usefulness of DNA evidence at crime scenes
in finding the person responsible by being able to place them at the scene of the crime. Every person has their own individual genetic code (except for
monozygotic twins). You inherit your DNA from your biological parents (50% from each parent). A DNA profile is made from a range of samples from
bodily substances such as blood, semen, saliva. Can be obtained from even very tiny traces and as it is physical evidence it can be used in court.
Non-intimate samples can be taken without consent only if two conditions are met. The person must be in police custody as a result of their arrest for a
recordable offence and has had a sample taken previously that was insufficient. An example is a mouth swab.
Evaluation
Locard's exchange principle means it is useful for violent and sexual offences.
Intelligence Databases
Police National Computer (PNC) - Contains criminal records and shares them across the UK, it’s used by law enforcement agencies such as the police to
support them during investigations that are occurring nationally, regionally, or locally. Originally only stored information on stolen vehicles but has
expanded to now store information on arrests, fingerprints, cautions, convictions, missing people, DNA, vehicle information on UK registered vehicles,
wanted people, disqualified drivers and those who have driving licences on over 48 million people. Name, gender, ethnicity and date of birth of the
individual can also be accessed. Around 13 million individual’s records. Details of all recordable offences are held until the person is 100 years old.
Police National Database - Connects law enforcement organisations, allowing them to share information on crime electronically. Contains intelligence
about suspected criminal activity as well as the data on the Police National Computer. It was created due to the severe errors that let Ian Huntley to
reoffend, murdering two ten-year-old girls, known as the Soham murders. Geographical boundaries and lack of communication between police forces, the
allegations against Ian Huntley, which involved underage girls, were not shared to all police forces a year before he committed the murders. This meant
Cambridgeshire police force had no knowledge of these allegations so didn’t suspect that he was a danger to the public. It contains 3.5 billion searchable
records of suspects involved in crime. 20 Million records are added every month, it includes 220 databases and has 12,000 users. Main purpose is to
contribute to the safeguarding of children and vulnerable people, preventing organised crime and reducing the threat presented by terrorism. Records on
the PND are not used as evidence in court.
National DNA Database - Setup in 1995 and as of 2023 has more than 5.9 million DNA profiles collected from around 647,000 crime scenes .Individual
samples are obtained from DNA evidence taken from a crime scene such as hair or saliva and is then stored in a computer. Has the ability to place an
individual at the scene of a crime by matching the profile on the database to the DNA profile found at the scene. Most countries have a DNA Database
which can be shared with other countries for making comparisons, this is useful if someone does not come from the country they committed the crime in.
Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 from concerns about human rights means DNA must be destroyed if a suspect is completely innocent, if arrested but
not charged, or charged but not convicted. Can only be held for 3 years then it must be deleted.
Crimint and the Gangs Matrix - information on criminals, suspects and protesters. Holds information on gang members and those suspected, also of
gang signs and tattoos. Tattoos are photographed and stored so they can be safeguarded in prison.
International database - UK police can share information with different countries. Includes INTERPOL databases on child sexual exploitation, biometric
records (DNA and fingerprints), stolen property, firearms and organised crime networks.
Strengths
Police National Computer
Available 24 hours a day, providing quick access to information concerning national and local security and has links to European databases to allow
sharing of information internationally. Contains several databases which show real time checks on people, vehicles, properties, drivers and crimes,
,providing information to support the police in their investigation. Saves time and resources, making it a useful investigative technique. Police can upload
information concerning a vehicle or the owner of a vehicle. For example, this may occur when a vehicle is stolen, the owners are missing or police believe
the owners are involved in criminal activity. Useful information in an investigation as neighbouring police forces can be notified and the vehicle may
contain evidence which can support the police in solving the crime once found. Police can use this intelligence database to help them throughout
investigations such as informing them of any previous convictions which could be useful to help the police narrow down suspects and provide evidence of a
person’s character when trying to secure a conviction for the crime being investigated. Database is also used by the Crown Courts to check if any
potential jurors have a criminal record, which would mean they are unsuitable to participate in the trial.
Police National Database
Information stored contains convicted criminals, suspects and victims of crime, allegations against a person and number of convictions as well as the
details of people who have been questioned by police but not charged which is useful information. As information can be shared electronically, overcomes
barriers caused by location and the issue of postage of information delaying the investigation, as it can now be received immediately. Reduces the problem
of police failing to disclose details of allegations as all police forces can access this information now about any suspect they are concerned with. Should
reduce the chance of people becoming victims of a repeat offender as information is no longer kept by separate police forces, police forces can now access
information held by each other.
National DNA Database
Can help police solve crime by leading them to certain suspects, for example by tracing offenders via DNA and quickly searching for a match on the
database. Can be used as part of evidence in court to prove the suspect is guilty. Also helps police find links between different crime scenes.
Case study – Sally Bowman - Murdered 10 yards from her front door, she was brutally attacked. Attacker was armed with a knife and stabbed her
seven times and raped her. In the morning a neighbour who heard the screams found Sally Anne’s body in a pool of blood. Later, Mark Dixie had a
violent outburst when a man spilt his pint over him in a pub. It happened in front of two police support officers, Mark was arrested and taken to
Crawley police station. Here he was processed, and a DNA swab taken. When his sample was uploaded to the National DNA database, it notified police of
a match to the crime scene of the murder. Dixie has previously entered a plea of ‘not guilty’. However, a forensic scientist informs the jury that there is a
billion to one chance that the DNA found on Sally Anne’s body is not from Dixie. Mark Dixie may never have been caught if the National DNA database
didn’t find the match which alerted the police.
Case study – David Fuller - The National DNA database helped identify him as responsible for the murder of two women, who he murdered 5 months
apart in 1987. Also confessed to sexually assaulting nearly 80 corpses in the morgue of the hospital where he worked as an engineer. At the time of the
murders, the National DNA database didn’t exist as it was only developed in 1995, and the forensic samples were poor. In 1999 a forensic sample from
the first victim’s body was enhanced by forensic scientists, this DNA sample was then checked for matches on the National DNA database and
narrowed down potential suspects to 90 people, this enabled the police and detectives to identify a relative of David Fuller which led them to David Fuller
himself. Fingerprint evidence was also important in this case, a fingerprint found in blood on a plastic bag in the first victim’s accommodation matched
Fuller. David Fuller was then arrested, and a DNA sample was taken from him and it was found to match the murderer’s.
Weaknesses
Police National Computer
Only presents text so doesn’t contain any images of offenders. Can result in police confusing people together because they have similar names. This error
, can result in convictions being recorded against the wrong person. At the beginning of 2021 it was found that around 213,000 offence records, 175,000
arrest records and 15,000 person records which contain the name and date of birth amongst other personal details about an individual were all deleted
from the Police National Computer in an error. Shows the fragility of the system as technical errors can erase important details that could have been
key in solving an investigation. Could be problematic if the data is inaccurate. Might produce false leads or even miscarriages of justice. Data could be
misused by corrupt officers e.g. in the USA an officer used a vehicle database to locate and stalk women.
Police National Database
Are ethical issues surrounding the information stored on the database. Concerns that innocent people will have their information stored as details of
people who have been questioned by police but not charged are kept on it.
National DNA Database
Risk of data abuse, threatening the public’s right to privacy. A DNA sample can reveal very personal and sensitive information about a person such as
how susceptible they are to disease. The Protection of Freedoms Bill was introduced in the UK in 2012 to manage the human right to privacy being
threatened from data abuse. Contamination of evidence is still possible which could result in miscarriages of justice by wrongfully placing someone at the
scene of a crime they were not responsible for. Possibility that partial DNA matches may be used from a crime scene if police are unable to find a match
which could lead to people being wrongly accused.
Forensics
Scientific techniques and tests which are used in criminal investigations for violent or property crimes. Includes DNA, Blood evidence (splatter patterns),
hair and fibres, footprint matching, semen, skin flakes & fingerprints. Crime scene contains lots of physical evidence that can help police in their
investigation and CSI is responsible for collecting and documenting the evidence from the scene. Involves taking photographs of the crime scene, of
exhibits and taking notes. A common approach path, which is where stepping plates are used when the CSI’s collect evidence, is used to preserve the
evidence. The evidence collected is put into specimen bags and then sent to the laboratory for analysis by forensic specialists and forensic scientists who
can notify the police of any significant findings that would help the investigation progress to ultimately find the offender.
DNA Evidence
Made in 1985 by Alec Jeffreys. Advances in techniques used to extract and analyse DNA have helped increase usefulness of DNA evidence at crime scenes
in finding the person responsible by being able to place them at the scene of the crime. Every person has their own individual genetic code (except for
monozygotic twins). You inherit your DNA from your biological parents (50% from each parent). A DNA profile is made from a range of samples from
bodily substances such as blood, semen, saliva. Can be obtained from even very tiny traces and as it is physical evidence it can be used in court.
Non-intimate samples can be taken without consent only if two conditions are met. The person must be in police custody as a result of their arrest for a
recordable offence and has had a sample taken previously that was insufficient. An example is a mouth swab.
Evaluation
Locard's exchange principle means it is useful for violent and sexual offences.
