ETHICS TOPIC
NOTES
, ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
KEY ISSUES TO CONSIDER
Animal welfare
The western philosophical tradition has historically given very little consideration to the welfare and protection of animals
Animals have often been judged to be subordinates of human beings because of their inferior rational capacities
● Several biblical sources also support this view (Genesis 1:26 ‘let us mankind in our image, so that they may rule
over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky’)
- Passage portrays humankind as the divinely ordained master of nature and the animal kingdom as its
mere servant
Religions originating in the Indian subcontinent (Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism) focus more in their teachings on the
considerations of animal
● The common principle of ahimsa (don not harm) is extended to all living beings
As a result of both secular and religious activism, there have been several changes to UK law
- 1952 - cock fighting act ourlawed cockfighting
- 1981 - Zoo licensing act established stricter regulations for zoos
- 2007 - Animal welfare act built upon previous legislation and imposed more severe penalties for the
mistreatment of animals
Sustainability
Sustainability can be defined as the Earth’s capability to continue supporting life
Society’s reliance on fossil fuels for transportation, energy and mass production of consumer goods, along with the
destruction of natural habitats to clear way for agriculture and large scale building projects to support the ever-growing
population take a heavy toll on the natural world
Various strategies have been developed to reduce the amount of harm human activity has on the environment
● Examples include the use of wind and solar power, and the development of green spaces in urban environments
● These approaches constitute what is known as sustainable development
Waste management
Each year, around 330 million tonnes of waste is produced by the UK
Recycling is able to turn 39% of household waste into reusable goods and materials, but the rest is liable to be incinerated
or placed in landfills
Incineration
● In its crudest form simply involves burning waste materials, thus producing a whole host of harmful chemical
by-products which can cause air pollution or health issues
● Often energy-intensive operations
● Modern incineration plants are increasingly capable of filtering out pollutants and are tightly regulated by
government environmental protection agencies
Landfills
● Unsustainable - there is a limit on the amount of space which can be used to dump rubbish
- This is a more pressing issues for relatively small countries like the UK
● Landfill sites have the potential to contaminate the soil and groundwater of the local area
Climate change
The large scale, long term shift in the planet’s weather patterns or average temperatures
The phenomenon has the potential to impact on almost every aspect of human life
Most striking effects of climate change include shrinking ice caps, rising sea levels, changes to the amount of rainfall, and
the increase in freak weather events such as floods and tornadoes
, CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Stewardship
Humans have a duty from God to protect the environment
Genesis 2:15 ‘The lord God took man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it
Passages in the bible also outline the value and beauty of creation; that the world is a gift from God and a symbol of his
divine love. Therefore, it should be respected
- Psalm 19:1 ‘The heavens declare the glory to God, and the sky above proclaims his handiwork
- Psalm 95:5 ‘The sea is his, for he made it, and his hands formed the dry land’
Christians consider Jesus’ teaching on loving one’s neighbour as providing a clear reason to act on environmental concerns
- Climate change can often have a disproportionate impact of developing countries where people are less able to
respond or prepare
Lynn Townsend White Jr
Published an article on the status of nature in Christianity
White places blame for the modern ecological crisis on Christian beliefs perpetuated from the middle ages. His conclusion is
that the ecological crisis is primarily due to the dominance of the Christian worldview in the west, which is exploitative of
nature in an unsustainable manner
He asserts that Judeo Christians are anti-ecologica and hostile towards nature
- People view themselves as being separate from nature
White concluded that western Christianity bears a substantial ‘burden of guilt’ for the contemporary environmental crisis
Operation Noah
Small christian charity that works with churches in the uk to address the climate crises
Believes that God’s creation is a gift that we have a duty to care for
Acting on climate change is about loving our neighbours, including those in other countries and in the future
Bright now campaign
● Encourages churches to divest from fossil fuels and invest in renewable energy
● Also working to increase tree cover and finding more environmentally friendly ways to manage church land
Climate sunday
● Encourages churches to hold a climate themed service once a year
● 2,200 churches have held a climate sunday
Strengths Weaknesses / criticisms
Accepts the inherent value of the earth Grounded in Christian principles of Agape and the belief in God, meaning
- People are expected to protect the earth because of its inherent that it is not appealing to those who are not Christian
goodness and not because it benefits them - Only a small number of people will adopt this principle
Links to the idea that humans have a duty to serve God May be too idealistic of a view
- Gives humans a tangible and realistic way of serving God and - Does not account for the need of humanity to develop, grow, and
being a Good Christian (however this is only attractive to use energy
Christians - It is arguably against human nature to be as selfless as
stewardship expects
If all people adopt this view, exploitation and damage to the environment
will be avoided Unrealistic to expect that all people will be willing to adopt this duty of
stewardship
Because this view is grounded in the belief of agape, it is arguably the
most loving and compassionate approach to environmental ethics
- It is best way for humans to emulate the acts and teachings of
Jesus on earth
Dominion
God has sovereign over his creation and has delegated the authority to mankind to have dominion over the animals
Humans were placed in a superior role and are to exercise control over the earth and its flora and fauna
Humans alone were made in God’s image so they alone represent God on earth
, The command to subdue the earth does not have to imply violence, exploitation or mistreatment, it can mean ‘to bring
under cultivation’
Genesis 1:26 ‘Let us make mankind in our image, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky’
Psalm 8:6 ‘You made mankind rulers over the works of your hands; you put everything under their feet’
Strengths Weaknesses / criticisms
Grounded on teachings in the Bible that humans are superior to other No outlines limits on dominion
living beings because they were the only beings created in the image of - How far can humans go in their ruling over and exploitation of
God and were placed as rulers over the world the environment before it become unethical
- However this is only a strength if one were to believe in the
inerrancy of the Bible Arguably a dangerous approach to ethics that inevitably leads to damage to
the environment
Accepts that humans will inevitably use the world for their own benefit - The idea of the superiority of humanity gives humans an excuse
- It not idealistic or unrealistic to exploit the natural world at the cost of other living beings
Some may argue that humans were created in a superior position above
humanity not to exploit it but so that they can protect it
- Mankind being rulers allows them to practise stewardship and is
not an excuse to cause harm
Dominion is often used as an excuse to exploit the natural world
- However, whilst the Bible says that humans are rulers over God’s
creation, there is no mention that they thus have permission to
exploit and use it for their own benefit
SECULAR APPROACHES TO THE ENVIRONMENT (CONSERVATION)
Shallow ecology
Anthropocentric view of the environment
It claims that conservation and protection of the environment should take place because it is in our best interest to do so
Environmental issues stand to cost us our health, money, safety, well-being and aesthetic enjoyment of the environment
It employs a utilitarian approach that more people will be happy, and certainly for future generations, if we protect the
environment
Deep Ecology
Developed by Arne Naess - a Norwegian Philosopher and activist who coined the term ‘deep ecology’
The concept of deep ecology was created in 1972, with it being a radical new vision of environmental defence
Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy and social movement based in the belief that humans must radically change
their relationship to nature from one that values nature solely for its usefulness to human beings to one that recognises
that nature has an inherent value.
All other answers found to the environmental crisis were superficial and anthropocentric, addressing the symptoms not the
causes.
The self should be understood as deeply connected with and part of nature, instead of disassociated from it.
Deep ecologists often call that conception of human nature the ‘ecological self’, and it represents humans acting and being
in harmony with nature, not in opposition to it.
When the ecological self is realised, it will recognise and abide by the norms of an environmental ethic that will end the
abuses on nature.
Gaia Hypothesis (James Lovelock)
He was a scientist, environmentalist and futurist who is best known for proposing the Gaia Hypothesis
NOTES
, ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
KEY ISSUES TO CONSIDER
Animal welfare
The western philosophical tradition has historically given very little consideration to the welfare and protection of animals
Animals have often been judged to be subordinates of human beings because of their inferior rational capacities
● Several biblical sources also support this view (Genesis 1:26 ‘let us mankind in our image, so that they may rule
over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky’)
- Passage portrays humankind as the divinely ordained master of nature and the animal kingdom as its
mere servant
Religions originating in the Indian subcontinent (Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism) focus more in their teachings on the
considerations of animal
● The common principle of ahimsa (don not harm) is extended to all living beings
As a result of both secular and religious activism, there have been several changes to UK law
- 1952 - cock fighting act ourlawed cockfighting
- 1981 - Zoo licensing act established stricter regulations for zoos
- 2007 - Animal welfare act built upon previous legislation and imposed more severe penalties for the
mistreatment of animals
Sustainability
Sustainability can be defined as the Earth’s capability to continue supporting life
Society’s reliance on fossil fuels for transportation, energy and mass production of consumer goods, along with the
destruction of natural habitats to clear way for agriculture and large scale building projects to support the ever-growing
population take a heavy toll on the natural world
Various strategies have been developed to reduce the amount of harm human activity has on the environment
● Examples include the use of wind and solar power, and the development of green spaces in urban environments
● These approaches constitute what is known as sustainable development
Waste management
Each year, around 330 million tonnes of waste is produced by the UK
Recycling is able to turn 39% of household waste into reusable goods and materials, but the rest is liable to be incinerated
or placed in landfills
Incineration
● In its crudest form simply involves burning waste materials, thus producing a whole host of harmful chemical
by-products which can cause air pollution or health issues
● Often energy-intensive operations
● Modern incineration plants are increasingly capable of filtering out pollutants and are tightly regulated by
government environmental protection agencies
Landfills
● Unsustainable - there is a limit on the amount of space which can be used to dump rubbish
- This is a more pressing issues for relatively small countries like the UK
● Landfill sites have the potential to contaminate the soil and groundwater of the local area
Climate change
The large scale, long term shift in the planet’s weather patterns or average temperatures
The phenomenon has the potential to impact on almost every aspect of human life
Most striking effects of climate change include shrinking ice caps, rising sea levels, changes to the amount of rainfall, and
the increase in freak weather events such as floods and tornadoes
, CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Stewardship
Humans have a duty from God to protect the environment
Genesis 2:15 ‘The lord God took man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it
Passages in the bible also outline the value and beauty of creation; that the world is a gift from God and a symbol of his
divine love. Therefore, it should be respected
- Psalm 19:1 ‘The heavens declare the glory to God, and the sky above proclaims his handiwork
- Psalm 95:5 ‘The sea is his, for he made it, and his hands formed the dry land’
Christians consider Jesus’ teaching on loving one’s neighbour as providing a clear reason to act on environmental concerns
- Climate change can often have a disproportionate impact of developing countries where people are less able to
respond or prepare
Lynn Townsend White Jr
Published an article on the status of nature in Christianity
White places blame for the modern ecological crisis on Christian beliefs perpetuated from the middle ages. His conclusion is
that the ecological crisis is primarily due to the dominance of the Christian worldview in the west, which is exploitative of
nature in an unsustainable manner
He asserts that Judeo Christians are anti-ecologica and hostile towards nature
- People view themselves as being separate from nature
White concluded that western Christianity bears a substantial ‘burden of guilt’ for the contemporary environmental crisis
Operation Noah
Small christian charity that works with churches in the uk to address the climate crises
Believes that God’s creation is a gift that we have a duty to care for
Acting on climate change is about loving our neighbours, including those in other countries and in the future
Bright now campaign
● Encourages churches to divest from fossil fuels and invest in renewable energy
● Also working to increase tree cover and finding more environmentally friendly ways to manage church land
Climate sunday
● Encourages churches to hold a climate themed service once a year
● 2,200 churches have held a climate sunday
Strengths Weaknesses / criticisms
Accepts the inherent value of the earth Grounded in Christian principles of Agape and the belief in God, meaning
- People are expected to protect the earth because of its inherent that it is not appealing to those who are not Christian
goodness and not because it benefits them - Only a small number of people will adopt this principle
Links to the idea that humans have a duty to serve God May be too idealistic of a view
- Gives humans a tangible and realistic way of serving God and - Does not account for the need of humanity to develop, grow, and
being a Good Christian (however this is only attractive to use energy
Christians - It is arguably against human nature to be as selfless as
stewardship expects
If all people adopt this view, exploitation and damage to the environment
will be avoided Unrealistic to expect that all people will be willing to adopt this duty of
stewardship
Because this view is grounded in the belief of agape, it is arguably the
most loving and compassionate approach to environmental ethics
- It is best way for humans to emulate the acts and teachings of
Jesus on earth
Dominion
God has sovereign over his creation and has delegated the authority to mankind to have dominion over the animals
Humans were placed in a superior role and are to exercise control over the earth and its flora and fauna
Humans alone were made in God’s image so they alone represent God on earth
, The command to subdue the earth does not have to imply violence, exploitation or mistreatment, it can mean ‘to bring
under cultivation’
Genesis 1:26 ‘Let us make mankind in our image, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky’
Psalm 8:6 ‘You made mankind rulers over the works of your hands; you put everything under their feet’
Strengths Weaknesses / criticisms
Grounded on teachings in the Bible that humans are superior to other No outlines limits on dominion
living beings because they were the only beings created in the image of - How far can humans go in their ruling over and exploitation of
God and were placed as rulers over the world the environment before it become unethical
- However this is only a strength if one were to believe in the
inerrancy of the Bible Arguably a dangerous approach to ethics that inevitably leads to damage to
the environment
Accepts that humans will inevitably use the world for their own benefit - The idea of the superiority of humanity gives humans an excuse
- It not idealistic or unrealistic to exploit the natural world at the cost of other living beings
Some may argue that humans were created in a superior position above
humanity not to exploit it but so that they can protect it
- Mankind being rulers allows them to practise stewardship and is
not an excuse to cause harm
Dominion is often used as an excuse to exploit the natural world
- However, whilst the Bible says that humans are rulers over God’s
creation, there is no mention that they thus have permission to
exploit and use it for their own benefit
SECULAR APPROACHES TO THE ENVIRONMENT (CONSERVATION)
Shallow ecology
Anthropocentric view of the environment
It claims that conservation and protection of the environment should take place because it is in our best interest to do so
Environmental issues stand to cost us our health, money, safety, well-being and aesthetic enjoyment of the environment
It employs a utilitarian approach that more people will be happy, and certainly for future generations, if we protect the
environment
Deep Ecology
Developed by Arne Naess - a Norwegian Philosopher and activist who coined the term ‘deep ecology’
The concept of deep ecology was created in 1972, with it being a radical new vision of environmental defence
Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy and social movement based in the belief that humans must radically change
their relationship to nature from one that values nature solely for its usefulness to human beings to one that recognises
that nature has an inherent value.
All other answers found to the environmental crisis were superficial and anthropocentric, addressing the symptoms not the
causes.
The self should be understood as deeply connected with and part of nature, instead of disassociated from it.
Deep ecologists often call that conception of human nature the ‘ecological self’, and it represents humans acting and being
in harmony with nature, not in opposition to it.
When the ecological self is realised, it will recognise and abide by the norms of an environmental ethic that will end the
abuses on nature.
Gaia Hypothesis (James Lovelock)
He was a scientist, environmentalist and futurist who is best known for proposing the Gaia Hypothesis
