‘Part one: The Normans: conquest and control
NOT IN SPEC – JUST FOR UNDERSTANDING - England had rich mineral resources and fertile farming land. Vikings constantly raided
England in 10th century – English would pay Vikings (AKA Danegeld) to leave, but Vikings would return every year. In 1013, Vikings launched a
full scale invasion, English King Aethelred the Unready died in 1016 (his sons unable to hold out against Vikings), Canute (Viking) became
King. Aethelred widow, Emma and her 2 surviving sons, Edward and Alfred , escaped to Normandy, where protected by Uncle Richard the
duke of Normandy. Richard raised sons, but forced Emma to return and marry Canute, to ensure Normans kept influence in England – this
suited Canute cus marrying previous king’s widow would appease English. England divided into earldoms to consolidate power when Canute
wasn’t in England – Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia Earls became most powerful after king, with Earl of Wessex (Earl Godwin)
most powerful of all earls. Canute died in 1035 , Canute’s first son Harold Harefoot reigned 1035-40 , Harthacanute, second son reigned
1040-42. Edward confessor became king in 1042 – very ez. Cos support of English earls + Vikings losing interest in England (so their own
empire was under attack). 1045, Edward married earl Godwin’s daughter Edith to secure support of the most powerful English earl. 1051,
Godwins rebelled , + got exiled - in response, Edward appointed roles to Normans cos felt he could trust them. The English court hated this +
forced Edward to expel Norman advisors from court + restore Godwin to previous privileged position. Edward turned out to be a weak ruler,
taking less interest year by year in governing England, preferring to focus on religion – he built Westminster abbey. By late 1050s, Harold
Godwinson was proclaimed sub-regulus by the king – acting as king’s deputy. 1066 January, Edward the confessor dies
Causes of Norman Conquest, including the death of Edward the Confessor, the claimants and claims.
● Edward the confessor dies. Edward has no sons, so no clear leader – to be king , u need to be relative of king , supported by
English lords and church , wealthy and powerful enough to protect country from foreign attack. Vikings, Normans and earls of
Wessex were interested in ruling England for past 50 years, and continued to be this way
● Edgar Ætheling (c1051–c1126) : Direct relative - As Edward’s great nephew, he was the closest male relative. Rejected by
Witan. Not strong warrior. Not wealthy or powerful. Only 14, no money/soldiers/war experience.
● Harold Godwinson (c1022–66) Not direct relative But he acted as Edward’s sub regulus and was already virtually in charge
of England. Accepted by Witan. Strong warrior – killed king Gruffydd of Wales. Wealthy and powerful. The Normans claimed
that Harold had sworn an oath of fealty promising to support William’s claim to the throne. The English claimed that Harold
had sworn the oath while being held prisoner and being threatened, so he could not be held to it
● Harald Hardrada (c1015–66) Not direct relative , But King Harthacnut had promised the throne to Hardrada’s father –
Hardrada believed that he had inherited this claim . He claimed Edward chose him on his deathbed. Ignored by Witan. Strong
warrior (leader of Varangian Guard – a ruthless army. Wealthy and powerful ( settled disputes w/ force – his name means hard
ruler). Experienced – king of Norway for 20 years.
● William of Normandy (c1028–87) Not direct relative, Although William was a distant cousin of Edward’s – William was
illegitimate son of Richard, duke of Normandy (Edwards uncle) – but because William was illegitimate (tht why aka William the
bastard), relationship w/ Edward was flawed . He claimed Edward promised him the throne in 1051. Ignored by Witan. Strong
Warrior. Wealthy and powerful + sent help to Edward when earl Godwin rebelled in 1051.
● Harold had the immediate advantage, and he took it – he was crowned King of England on 6 January 1066: the day after the
● death of Edward the Confessor. Haste reflects how insecure he felt - Harold knew that he would be challenged – this was why
he was crowned so quickly.
Military aspects: Battle of Stamford Bridge; Battle of Hastings; Anglo-Saxon and Norman tactics; military innovations,
including cavalry and castles.
§ First, Harold assembled a navy. As he had only just become king, he did not have any ships of his own, so he called up ships and
sailors from all over the country. He very soon had a large navy – he had ‘assembled a larger naval force than any king had
assembled before in the country’. Next he gathered his army. Anglo-Saxon kings did not have their own army – they had a small
band of professional soldiers (the housecarls). However, in times of war, the king called on the thegns (lords) to fight for him. The
thegns would bring ordinary men with them – they formed the fyrd. d and well-armed. The fyrd were inexperienced fighters, and
ill-equipped, but they fought with whatever weapons they could find and could be very effective. he housecarls were well-trained and
well-armed.
§ By May, Harold had his navy – and several thousand troops – waiting on the south coast for William to invade. Edwin and Morcar,
earls loyal to Harold, were guarding the north of England.
§ William prepares:
§ Before William could begin to prepare for invasion, he had to win over some of his countrymen, who thought invading England was
too risky. Getting the pope’s support (via papal banner), and promising land in England if he won, eventually persuaded his fellow
Normans to support him. Papal banner was a sign to the soldiers that the pope had blessed their invasion and therefor god was on
their side/ Like Harold, William had no army of his own, and had to persuade his vassals (men who had sworn allegiance to him) to
provide soldiers. Assembling his invasion force took time, but eventually William had 7000 soldiers, including archers and cavalry ,
3000 horses and 700 ships. To move the soldiers across the Channel, William needed ships. He ordered hundreds of ships to be
, built – this was a slow process, delaying the invasion. William also knew that he would need to secure his men once he got to
England. The Normans built wooden castles to control the land and keep troops safe. William built pre-fabricated castles to take with
him to England, meaning pre-made sections could be quickly assembled
§ While William was assembling his army, building ships and pre-fabricating castles, Harold spent three months waiting on the south
coast. On 8 September 1066, Harold disbanded his army because: his soldiers wanted paying they were hungry he was running out
of resources the fyrd were needed at home to bring in the harvest . A few days after Harold disbanded his army in September 1066,
he heard that Harald Hardrada had invaded and captured the city of York.
Battle at Stamford Bridge
§ Harold’s brother Tostig had been Earl of Northumbria but had lost his position and been sent into exile. Angry, Tostig went to Harald
Hardrada to persuade him to invade England. Tostig wasn’t loyal to the Vikings – he was just looking for an opportunity to regain his
own position. Hardrada and Tostig’s fleet of 300 ships and 8000 troops landed at Riccall, near York, and then their soldiers marched
towards the city on 20 September 1066 + won (aka battle of Fulford gate). Earls Edwin and Morcars tried to defend the city but were
defeated ( only had 3500 troops) – although they escaped with their lives. The city of York surrendered to Hardrada
§ After hearing of Hardrada’s arrival, Harold regathers his army and marches north – travelling nearly 200 miles in under a week. More
troops join Harold on his way north. Hardrada and Tostig are caught by surprise at Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066 – the
Vikings are not even wearing their chain-mail. Harold expects to have to attack York, but finds Hardrada, Tostig and their army have
left. He marches his army straight through the city. The fighting lasts all day – thousands of men are killed, including Hardrada and
Tostig. Eventually the English break the Viking shield wall, and the Vikings surrender. Ony 24 out of 300 ships needed to Carry
Vikings home.
§ Harold won cos of : surprise (mainly) , outnumbered Hardrada , Hardrada + army had no armour , poor tactic and leadership from
Hard – went out to fight without armour, even though he was king , quick troop movement and Harold’s leadership
§ It was good for morale. England was safe from Viking invasion. It may have made Harold complacent. England was unprotected
against the Normans. Having to move north and back would have tired Harold’s troops. The many dead and wounded were losses
Harold could not afford.
Battle of Hastings:
§ The Normans land in England The Norman invasion of England was delayed by bad weather. The wind turned in William’s favour
towards the end of September. The Norman fleet landed at Pevensey on the Sussex coast on 28 September and William chose it as
his base to raid the local area. Harold was still in the north.
§ Harold heard about the Norman invasion 3 days after winning at S.Bridge but he was still in the north. He set off towards London
again, covering 200 miles in a week. Harold’s housecarls travelled with him. He gathered an army in London, and gave orders for
more soldiers to assemble in Sussex. Harold’s advisors thought he should wait, but Harold refused. It was clear that neither William
nor Harold was going to give up the English throne without a fight. Harold arrived near Hastings on 13 October. Despite Harold’s
hasty arrival, William knew that he was coming and at dawn on 14 October, the Normans marched out to meet Harold’s army, who
were camped near Senlac Hill.
§ The two armies were evenly matched :
§ William’s army : About 7000 men , The Norman soldiers were well rested , William’s troops stood at the bottom of the hill , William’s
army consisted of knights on horseback, archers and infantry , The Normans fought with swords and wore chain-mail. The thegns
fought with swords and javelins
§ Harold’s army About 7000 men Others were trying to join him but were still a long way away. If Harold had waited, he might have had
14000 men.. Many of the men who had fought at Stamford Bridge were tired or wounded. Harold chose a ridge near Hastings, with a
forest behind it – this gave him a strong defensive line. The forest would make retreat difficult.. Harold had no horsemen or archers.
His foot soldiers formed a deep line, protected by a wall of shields.. The fyrd carried weapons like axes, clubs, scythes and
pitchforks. These were simple weapons, but very effective.
§ Norman knights: They were highly trained, heavily armoured and rode horses. They could launch devastating charges using their
height to beat down foes. Horses were vulnerable to attack. The advantages of a cavalry charge were lost if horses had to run uphill.
§ English housecarls: A disciplined shield wall was very hard to break. Housecarls knew how to fight together and their axes were
highly effective. Housecarls were vulnerable to cavalry and archer attacks if the shield wall broke.
§ Norman foot soldiers vs English fyrd : William’s foot soldiers were a mixture of Normans and mercenaries from across Europe. There
were lightly armoured archers and crossbowmen and heavily armoured foot soldiers. Foot soldiers may not have trained with
knights, making coordinated attacks difficult. The thegns were well-armed with swords and javelins, but the fyrd fought with whatever
weapons they had – clubs, axes, scythes and pitchforks. Harold had no archers.
,§ Harold’s advantages + disadvantages : Harold was fighting on home ground: Wessex. The housecarls were experienced, disciplined
and skilled warriors. The English had the best position on the battlefield: on a ridge at the top of the hill , BUT : The men of the
general fyrd were inexperienced and lacked discipline. The core of his army was tired from fighting at Stamford Bridge and marching
south. They may also have been demoralised by having to fight yet another battle. Harold did not have any archers
§ William’s advantages and disadvantages : William’s troops were trained in tactics that the English had never experienced before,
including the feigned retreat. His troops had to fight to survive: they would not be able to retreat or escape. William had obtained the
pope’s blessing for his invasion and he and his men believed that God was on their side, BUT : Having to fight uphill made knights
and archers less effective. Although his knights had trained for years in their battle tactics, many of his foot soldiers were
mercenaries who had not trained to fight in combination with knights. Knights had trained to charge against other knights: charging a
shield wall was probably something entirely new
§ Harold’s army was able to position itself along a ridge at the top of a hill. That meant that William had to attack uphill. The battle
lasted eight hours – a very long time for a medieval battle. This was perhaps because the two sides were quite evenly matched.
There were different phases to the battle. William’s archers were first to attack, but the archers had to stay out of English javelin
range and the English shield wall knew how to catch the arrows on their shields. William’s foot soldiers and knights were beaten
back by the shield wall initially. The English housecarls did great damage to horses and men with their twohanded axes. At one point
the Norman army was panicking that William had been killed. William tipped back his helmet to show he was still alive. The turning
point was when the Normans retreated. The English broke ranks to chase them, weakening their line. The Normans were carrying
out a tactic called a feigned retreat. The shield wall was gradually thinned out. Norman knights then charged through it and caused
great damage. Norman archers also became more effective as the shield wall failed. Harold and his brothers, Gyrth and Leofwine,
and their housecarls, made final stands at the top of the hill, fighting to the death. Harold and his brothers were killed. With Harold
dead, the rest of the English army began to flee.
§ Why William won : Norman Tactics : feigned retreat, and innovation like using knights against a shield wall , English tactics: shield
wall could only defend, not attack, lack of archers , Harold’s leadership : racing down from London before fyrd had assembled and
wass complete, failed to surprise William, forcing a defensive battle , William’s luck – in battle, and timing of Hardrada’s invasion.
Norman Castles
Strategic:: They
were built in
strategically
important places, for
example, to ensure
that the Normans
controlled towns,
river crossings and
the meeting points
of major roads, and
could move around
the country easily
§ Initially made of
wood, but later
made form stone
§ They were used to
garrison soldiers
who could suppress
or deter rebellion. A
network of castles
meant troops could
be moved to where
they were most
needed.
§ The tower was
used as a lookout
point, keeping the
local population
under surveillance.
§ Symbolism:
Castles reminded
the English who was in control. They were dominating structures that overlooked the surrounding area. They would have had a huge
psychological impact. The Normans often destroyed houses and workshops to make space for their castles. Most castles were built
with English forced labour, and the English were charged taxes to maintain them, adding to the feeling of Norman dominance.
§ Effectiveness can be seen in Exeter when Harold’s son’s tried to invade 1069
,Establishing and maintaining control: the Harrying of the North; revolts, 1067–1075; King William’s leadership and
government; William II and his inheritance.
Doomesday book revealed William posseed 20% of England’s wealth, his bbarons 50%, and church had 25%. The surviving English
nobles had meagre 5% - anglosaxons defeated + normans taken over
§ Step 1 : coronation . After the Battle of Hastings, William hoped that the English would surrender. However, the Witan chose to make
Edgar Ætheling king. William took Dover, securing the route back to the coast. He then marched through Kent, looting, terrorising the
population and building castles as he went, before taking Canterbury. He took the royal treasury (where the royal wealth was kept) at
Winchester. He then headed to London, setting up camp outside the city at Barking. Meanwhile, many nobles became concerned
about Edgar’s ability to rule. In December, Edgar came to William to surrender the kingdom. William was crowned King of England at
Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, 1066. The atmosphere was tense and fighting broke out outside the Abbey.
§ Step 2 : William wanted to show that he was the legitimate (entitled) ruler of England, so he tried to make sure there was
continuity (green – continuity) between Edward the Confessor’s reign and his own. Figanbd remained archbishop of canterbury till
1070, and royal writs continued to be written in English until 1070s
§ He claiming all English land and giving the land of those who died at Hastings to his supporters (the land given AKA shires - in return
for shires they swore loyalty to william). But also Allowed English earls and thegns who had not fought at Hastings to buy back their
land.
§ . Putting his closest allies in charge of the south. But also Allowed English nobles to keep their positions if they submitted to him –
Earls Edwin, Morcar and Waltheof allowed their titles and lands. Same with Edgar Aethling.
§ Taking Edgar Ætheling, Edwin and Morcar with him to Normandy to discourage rebellion.. Kept them in comfort rather than having
them imprisoned or killed.
§ Controlling the borderlands: William created three new earldoms (Hereford, Shrewsbury and Chester) to protect the Marches – the
border with Wales. The Marcher earls had special rights and privileges
§ Rebellions had started from 1067, all the way to 1075. Reasons for early rebellions : Some English people hated having foreigners
ruling over them. Many Norman lords did not understand local customs. The more distant regions were harder to control. Many
families lost land and titles after the Conquest, which caused resentment. Some people had lost relatives at Hastings and wanted
revenge. William demanded high rates of tax, which caused poverty.
§ Step 3: Dealing with Early Revolts (1067-68)Rebellion on the Welsh border, 1067 The first large uprising against the Normans was
in Mercia. It was led by an English thegn called Eadric. Eadric had lost his land to Norman knights. He joined with two Welsh kings
and attacked Hereford, destroying the city. William returned from Normandy. Eadric was never caught and continued his attacks.
§ Kent and Northumbria, 1067 The people of Kent were angry about their treatment by the Normans. They persuaded a former ally of
William’s, Eustace of Boulogne, to attack Dover. His attack failed and Eustace went home. In Northumbria, William’s chosen ruler,
Copsig, was ambushed and murdered. William allowed Copsig’s killer to take over
§ Rebellion in Mercia and York 1068 :Several English earls, including Edwin and Morcar, had submitted to William in order to keep their
land and power. In 1068, they realised that their power was being chipped away so they led a revolt against William and several other
English nobles joined them. Edwin and Morcar again submitted to William, who pardoned them. William marched into Edwin’s lands
in Mercia, building a castle at Warwick and allowing his men to terrorise the population. He then moved north, building castles at
Nottingham, York, Lincoln, Huntingdon and Cambridge. William decided that he needed to put a trusted ally in charge of the north. He
appointed Robert de Comines to the job. RDC = new earl of northern Northumbria, but in Jan 1069 looting by him and his men led to
rebellion in Durham – RDC and his men killed.
§ Exeter – 1068 - King Harold’s mother, Gytha, plotted rebellion in Exeter and challenged William’s authority. She also tried to persuade
the Danish king to invade England. William was furious and marched an army to besiege Exeter. The rebels agreed to swear loyalty
to William. The city surrendered after 18 days – Gytha and her family escaped. William treated the rebels leniently, but he built a
castle in Exeter and others around the south west. In 1069, Harold’s sons tried to invade the south west. They were unsuccessful,
mainly because the city of Exeter refused to support them – partly due to presence of castle and garrison
§ In Feb 1069 , An uprising in York: the governor and Norman troops are killed. Edgar Ætheling comes down from Scotland to join the
rebellion. The Norman sheriff and his garrison are attacked - William races north with a large army and quickly ends the rebellion. •
William lays waste to the whole city of York and builds new castles. • William returns south for Easter.
§ The Danes attack York, September 1069 • King Sweyn of Denmark sends a large invasion fleet to England. • The Danish invasion
force meets up with Edgar Ætheling. • 21 September: in the AngloDanish attack on York, 3000 Normans are killed. • The Danes
retreat to the Lincolnshire coast. • William is in trouble. As well as the Danes and the rebels in the north, he is facing opposition
elsewhere. • New rebellions begin in Devon, Shrewsbury and Chester. • As soon as William’s forces subdue unrest in one region, it
starts again somewhere else. • The Danes bide their time, protected by marshland. William’s solutions (1) Pay the Danes to leave
England. (2) The Harrying of the North. (3) A symbolic show of power - William had his crown sent to York and wore it to celebrate
Christmas amidst the ruins of the city (in York) – Even Orderic Vitalis, who was often complimentary of the conqueror, criticized Wil
, liam
§ The Harrying of the North in 1069 showed that William was prepared to take extreme measures to keep England under his control.
The early medieval period was a violent time, but William’s Harrying of the North was seen as especially brutal, even by his
contemporaries.
§ Reasons for the Harrying : A military response to guerrilla warfare, which depended on support for rebels from local people. As a
warning to other areas of England of what could happen to them. To prevent Vikings using Yorkshire as a base for future attacks.
Revenge for the death of Robert de Comines and hundreds of other Normans. , To destroy the spirit of rebellion in the north.
Features : Homes destroyed so people had nowhere to shelter. Took place in the winter of 1069–70. Livestock killed. Area of
Harrying stretched from the Humber River to the Tees River. Also in Staffordshire and parts of Shropshire. Seed destroyed so there
was nothing to plant for food the next year . Immediate consequences : Death of thousands from starvation: perhaps as many as
100000 people died. Flood of refugees from the north to other parts of England, for example, the west. Reports of families selling
themselves into slavery to survive. Reports of cannibalism by desperate, starving people. Reasons for William’s success :
Opposition was not united making it easy for William to weaken them (for example by paying off the Danes). , William’s soldiers were
extremely effective against poorly armed rebels. , William’s methods were brutal, crushing immediate rebellion and making it
impossible for new rebellions to break out. Long-term consequences. No further rebellion from the north; after 1071 no further
Anglo-Saxon rebellions. Danish invaders in 1070 went to Ely as there was now no base for them in Yorkshire A turning point: after
1070 William decided to replace the English aristocracy with Normans. Criticism of William’s brutality and William’s own sense of his
sin and need for penance. William was criticised by the pope for his actions, and was said to have repented for the deaths of so
many people for the rest of his life. 20 years later, Yorkshire had still not recovered; 60 per cent was listed as ‘waste’ in the
Domesday Book and there were between 80,000 and 150, 000 fewer people than in 1066.
§ Step 5 : East Anglia : Hereward the Wake and rebellion at Ely Hereward had returned to Ely around 1069 from exile. He started a
rebellion because he had lost his lands to a new Norman lord. In 1070 the Danes returned and set up base in Ely. The Danes and
Hereward joined forces for a raid on Peterborough Abbey. Hereward had hoped to save the treasures of the monastery from the
Normans, but the Danes took all the treasure and sailed back to Denmark with it. Morcar and his men came to Ely and joined
Hereward. They defended Ely but the Normans eventually defeated them. Morcar was captured while Hereward escaped – but he
was not heard of again.
§ Step 6 : Dealing with Earl’s revolt 1075 - Roger, Earl of Hereford (the son of William’s friend William FitzOsbern) was angry at his
reduced influence. He plotted with another earl, Ralph de Gael, and the English earl Waltheof. The revolt was supported by the
Danes, who sent 200 ships. William was able to defeat the rebellion entirely. Waltheof never joined in – fled to normandy. The other
two earls were cornered before they could attack. Roger and Ralph lost their land. Waltheof was beheaded.
Carrying on Norman Dynasty
§ Earls revolt 1075 was last major revolt William faced – position was relatively secure in England, but position in Normandy had
deteriorated + spent a lot of time there keeping order
§ Battle of Mantes 1086 – William injured + damaged his intestines cos fell from saddle. After slow declining lasting 6 weeks, William
conqueror died 9th September 1087, aged 59. William was very overweight at death – his body wouldn’t fit into coffin + his swollen
bowels burst releasing an ‘intolerable stech’ according to the Orderic Vitalles
§ Relations between William conqueror + his oldest son Robert Curthose was poor – William called him ‘proud and silly’ à thus William
granted crown o England to second surviving son, William 2nd (William rufus). Robert wanted to rule both England and Normandy , so
Rufus’ appointment caused tension between the 2 bros. Youngest son , Henry given money but no land.
§ Rufus crowned king on 26 September 1087 by Archbishop Lanfranc in Canterbury Cathedral.
§ 1088, Bishop Odo of Bayeux plotted a rebellion with six leading barons. The barons held land in England and Normandy and did not
want to swear loyalty to two rulers (Robert was now Duke of Normandy) . Fact that Rufus and Robert were rivals made this more
problematic. Rufus found out about the plot from Bishop of Durham . He bought the barons off with promises like hunting rights
(which he never kept). Odo surrendered and, in 1091, William Rufus travelled to Normandy to challenge Robert + they managed to
agree terms. Robert’s involvement in First Crusade 1096 kept him away from England for rest of Rufus’ reign
§ William Rufus was killed in a hunting accident in 2nd August 1100. His younger brother Henry claimed the throne – so quickly that he
was suspected of plotting his brother’s death (although there is no proof of this). 1101 - Henry agreed with his brother Robert that
they would both keep to their own kingdoms. However, he went back on this , attacked Normandy in 1105, defeated Robert in Battle
of Trinchbrai in 1106 , by 1107, Henry ruled both Normandy and England, just as his father, William I, had done
Part two: Life under the Normans
Feudalism and government: roles, rights, and responsibilities; landholding and lordship; land distribution;
patronage; Anglo-Saxon and Norman government systems; the Anglo-Saxon and Norman aristocracies and
societies; military service; justice and the legal system such as ordeals, ‘murdrum’; inheritance; the
Domesday Book.
Feudalism and government
NOT IN SPEC – JUST FOR UNDERSTANDING - England had rich mineral resources and fertile farming land. Vikings constantly raided
England in 10th century – English would pay Vikings (AKA Danegeld) to leave, but Vikings would return every year. In 1013, Vikings launched a
full scale invasion, English King Aethelred the Unready died in 1016 (his sons unable to hold out against Vikings), Canute (Viking) became
King. Aethelred widow, Emma and her 2 surviving sons, Edward and Alfred , escaped to Normandy, where protected by Uncle Richard the
duke of Normandy. Richard raised sons, but forced Emma to return and marry Canute, to ensure Normans kept influence in England – this
suited Canute cus marrying previous king’s widow would appease English. England divided into earldoms to consolidate power when Canute
wasn’t in England – Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia Earls became most powerful after king, with Earl of Wessex (Earl Godwin)
most powerful of all earls. Canute died in 1035 , Canute’s first son Harold Harefoot reigned 1035-40 , Harthacanute, second son reigned
1040-42. Edward confessor became king in 1042 – very ez. Cos support of English earls + Vikings losing interest in England (so their own
empire was under attack). 1045, Edward married earl Godwin’s daughter Edith to secure support of the most powerful English earl. 1051,
Godwins rebelled , + got exiled - in response, Edward appointed roles to Normans cos felt he could trust them. The English court hated this +
forced Edward to expel Norman advisors from court + restore Godwin to previous privileged position. Edward turned out to be a weak ruler,
taking less interest year by year in governing England, preferring to focus on religion – he built Westminster abbey. By late 1050s, Harold
Godwinson was proclaimed sub-regulus by the king – acting as king’s deputy. 1066 January, Edward the confessor dies
Causes of Norman Conquest, including the death of Edward the Confessor, the claimants and claims.
● Edward the confessor dies. Edward has no sons, so no clear leader – to be king , u need to be relative of king , supported by
English lords and church , wealthy and powerful enough to protect country from foreign attack. Vikings, Normans and earls of
Wessex were interested in ruling England for past 50 years, and continued to be this way
● Edgar Ætheling (c1051–c1126) : Direct relative - As Edward’s great nephew, he was the closest male relative. Rejected by
Witan. Not strong warrior. Not wealthy or powerful. Only 14, no money/soldiers/war experience.
● Harold Godwinson (c1022–66) Not direct relative But he acted as Edward’s sub regulus and was already virtually in charge
of England. Accepted by Witan. Strong warrior – killed king Gruffydd of Wales. Wealthy and powerful. The Normans claimed
that Harold had sworn an oath of fealty promising to support William’s claim to the throne. The English claimed that Harold
had sworn the oath while being held prisoner and being threatened, so he could not be held to it
● Harald Hardrada (c1015–66) Not direct relative , But King Harthacnut had promised the throne to Hardrada’s father –
Hardrada believed that he had inherited this claim . He claimed Edward chose him on his deathbed. Ignored by Witan. Strong
warrior (leader of Varangian Guard – a ruthless army. Wealthy and powerful ( settled disputes w/ force – his name means hard
ruler). Experienced – king of Norway for 20 years.
● William of Normandy (c1028–87) Not direct relative, Although William was a distant cousin of Edward’s – William was
illegitimate son of Richard, duke of Normandy (Edwards uncle) – but because William was illegitimate (tht why aka William the
bastard), relationship w/ Edward was flawed . He claimed Edward promised him the throne in 1051. Ignored by Witan. Strong
Warrior. Wealthy and powerful + sent help to Edward when earl Godwin rebelled in 1051.
● Harold had the immediate advantage, and he took it – he was crowned King of England on 6 January 1066: the day after the
● death of Edward the Confessor. Haste reflects how insecure he felt - Harold knew that he would be challenged – this was why
he was crowned so quickly.
Military aspects: Battle of Stamford Bridge; Battle of Hastings; Anglo-Saxon and Norman tactics; military innovations,
including cavalry and castles.
§ First, Harold assembled a navy. As he had only just become king, he did not have any ships of his own, so he called up ships and
sailors from all over the country. He very soon had a large navy – he had ‘assembled a larger naval force than any king had
assembled before in the country’. Next he gathered his army. Anglo-Saxon kings did not have their own army – they had a small
band of professional soldiers (the housecarls). However, in times of war, the king called on the thegns (lords) to fight for him. The
thegns would bring ordinary men with them – they formed the fyrd. d and well-armed. The fyrd were inexperienced fighters, and
ill-equipped, but they fought with whatever weapons they could find and could be very effective. he housecarls were well-trained and
well-armed.
§ By May, Harold had his navy – and several thousand troops – waiting on the south coast for William to invade. Edwin and Morcar,
earls loyal to Harold, were guarding the north of England.
§ William prepares:
§ Before William could begin to prepare for invasion, he had to win over some of his countrymen, who thought invading England was
too risky. Getting the pope’s support (via papal banner), and promising land in England if he won, eventually persuaded his fellow
Normans to support him. Papal banner was a sign to the soldiers that the pope had blessed their invasion and therefor god was on
their side/ Like Harold, William had no army of his own, and had to persuade his vassals (men who had sworn allegiance to him) to
provide soldiers. Assembling his invasion force took time, but eventually William had 7000 soldiers, including archers and cavalry ,
3000 horses and 700 ships. To move the soldiers across the Channel, William needed ships. He ordered hundreds of ships to be
, built – this was a slow process, delaying the invasion. William also knew that he would need to secure his men once he got to
England. The Normans built wooden castles to control the land and keep troops safe. William built pre-fabricated castles to take with
him to England, meaning pre-made sections could be quickly assembled
§ While William was assembling his army, building ships and pre-fabricating castles, Harold spent three months waiting on the south
coast. On 8 September 1066, Harold disbanded his army because: his soldiers wanted paying they were hungry he was running out
of resources the fyrd were needed at home to bring in the harvest . A few days after Harold disbanded his army in September 1066,
he heard that Harald Hardrada had invaded and captured the city of York.
Battle at Stamford Bridge
§ Harold’s brother Tostig had been Earl of Northumbria but had lost his position and been sent into exile. Angry, Tostig went to Harald
Hardrada to persuade him to invade England. Tostig wasn’t loyal to the Vikings – he was just looking for an opportunity to regain his
own position. Hardrada and Tostig’s fleet of 300 ships and 8000 troops landed at Riccall, near York, and then their soldiers marched
towards the city on 20 September 1066 + won (aka battle of Fulford gate). Earls Edwin and Morcars tried to defend the city but were
defeated ( only had 3500 troops) – although they escaped with their lives. The city of York surrendered to Hardrada
§ After hearing of Hardrada’s arrival, Harold regathers his army and marches north – travelling nearly 200 miles in under a week. More
troops join Harold on his way north. Hardrada and Tostig are caught by surprise at Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066 – the
Vikings are not even wearing their chain-mail. Harold expects to have to attack York, but finds Hardrada, Tostig and their army have
left. He marches his army straight through the city. The fighting lasts all day – thousands of men are killed, including Hardrada and
Tostig. Eventually the English break the Viking shield wall, and the Vikings surrender. Ony 24 out of 300 ships needed to Carry
Vikings home.
§ Harold won cos of : surprise (mainly) , outnumbered Hardrada , Hardrada + army had no armour , poor tactic and leadership from
Hard – went out to fight without armour, even though he was king , quick troop movement and Harold’s leadership
§ It was good for morale. England was safe from Viking invasion. It may have made Harold complacent. England was unprotected
against the Normans. Having to move north and back would have tired Harold’s troops. The many dead and wounded were losses
Harold could not afford.
Battle of Hastings:
§ The Normans land in England The Norman invasion of England was delayed by bad weather. The wind turned in William’s favour
towards the end of September. The Norman fleet landed at Pevensey on the Sussex coast on 28 September and William chose it as
his base to raid the local area. Harold was still in the north.
§ Harold heard about the Norman invasion 3 days after winning at S.Bridge but he was still in the north. He set off towards London
again, covering 200 miles in a week. Harold’s housecarls travelled with him. He gathered an army in London, and gave orders for
more soldiers to assemble in Sussex. Harold’s advisors thought he should wait, but Harold refused. It was clear that neither William
nor Harold was going to give up the English throne without a fight. Harold arrived near Hastings on 13 October. Despite Harold’s
hasty arrival, William knew that he was coming and at dawn on 14 October, the Normans marched out to meet Harold’s army, who
were camped near Senlac Hill.
§ The two armies were evenly matched :
§ William’s army : About 7000 men , The Norman soldiers were well rested , William’s troops stood at the bottom of the hill , William’s
army consisted of knights on horseback, archers and infantry , The Normans fought with swords and wore chain-mail. The thegns
fought with swords and javelins
§ Harold’s army About 7000 men Others were trying to join him but were still a long way away. If Harold had waited, he might have had
14000 men.. Many of the men who had fought at Stamford Bridge were tired or wounded. Harold chose a ridge near Hastings, with a
forest behind it – this gave him a strong defensive line. The forest would make retreat difficult.. Harold had no horsemen or archers.
His foot soldiers formed a deep line, protected by a wall of shields.. The fyrd carried weapons like axes, clubs, scythes and
pitchforks. These were simple weapons, but very effective.
§ Norman knights: They were highly trained, heavily armoured and rode horses. They could launch devastating charges using their
height to beat down foes. Horses were vulnerable to attack. The advantages of a cavalry charge were lost if horses had to run uphill.
§ English housecarls: A disciplined shield wall was very hard to break. Housecarls knew how to fight together and their axes were
highly effective. Housecarls were vulnerable to cavalry and archer attacks if the shield wall broke.
§ Norman foot soldiers vs English fyrd : William’s foot soldiers were a mixture of Normans and mercenaries from across Europe. There
were lightly armoured archers and crossbowmen and heavily armoured foot soldiers. Foot soldiers may not have trained with
knights, making coordinated attacks difficult. The thegns were well-armed with swords and javelins, but the fyrd fought with whatever
weapons they had – clubs, axes, scythes and pitchforks. Harold had no archers.
,§ Harold’s advantages + disadvantages : Harold was fighting on home ground: Wessex. The housecarls were experienced, disciplined
and skilled warriors. The English had the best position on the battlefield: on a ridge at the top of the hill , BUT : The men of the
general fyrd were inexperienced and lacked discipline. The core of his army was tired from fighting at Stamford Bridge and marching
south. They may also have been demoralised by having to fight yet another battle. Harold did not have any archers
§ William’s advantages and disadvantages : William’s troops were trained in tactics that the English had never experienced before,
including the feigned retreat. His troops had to fight to survive: they would not be able to retreat or escape. William had obtained the
pope’s blessing for his invasion and he and his men believed that God was on their side, BUT : Having to fight uphill made knights
and archers less effective. Although his knights had trained for years in their battle tactics, many of his foot soldiers were
mercenaries who had not trained to fight in combination with knights. Knights had trained to charge against other knights: charging a
shield wall was probably something entirely new
§ Harold’s army was able to position itself along a ridge at the top of a hill. That meant that William had to attack uphill. The battle
lasted eight hours – a very long time for a medieval battle. This was perhaps because the two sides were quite evenly matched.
There were different phases to the battle. William’s archers were first to attack, but the archers had to stay out of English javelin
range and the English shield wall knew how to catch the arrows on their shields. William’s foot soldiers and knights were beaten
back by the shield wall initially. The English housecarls did great damage to horses and men with their twohanded axes. At one point
the Norman army was panicking that William had been killed. William tipped back his helmet to show he was still alive. The turning
point was when the Normans retreated. The English broke ranks to chase them, weakening their line. The Normans were carrying
out a tactic called a feigned retreat. The shield wall was gradually thinned out. Norman knights then charged through it and caused
great damage. Norman archers also became more effective as the shield wall failed. Harold and his brothers, Gyrth and Leofwine,
and their housecarls, made final stands at the top of the hill, fighting to the death. Harold and his brothers were killed. With Harold
dead, the rest of the English army began to flee.
§ Why William won : Norman Tactics : feigned retreat, and innovation like using knights against a shield wall , English tactics: shield
wall could only defend, not attack, lack of archers , Harold’s leadership : racing down from London before fyrd had assembled and
wass complete, failed to surprise William, forcing a defensive battle , William’s luck – in battle, and timing of Hardrada’s invasion.
Norman Castles
Strategic:: They
were built in
strategically
important places, for
example, to ensure
that the Normans
controlled towns,
river crossings and
the meeting points
of major roads, and
could move around
the country easily
§ Initially made of
wood, but later
made form stone
§ They were used to
garrison soldiers
who could suppress
or deter rebellion. A
network of castles
meant troops could
be moved to where
they were most
needed.
§ The tower was
used as a lookout
point, keeping the
local population
under surveillance.
§ Symbolism:
Castles reminded
the English who was in control. They were dominating structures that overlooked the surrounding area. They would have had a huge
psychological impact. The Normans often destroyed houses and workshops to make space for their castles. Most castles were built
with English forced labour, and the English were charged taxes to maintain them, adding to the feeling of Norman dominance.
§ Effectiveness can be seen in Exeter when Harold’s son’s tried to invade 1069
,Establishing and maintaining control: the Harrying of the North; revolts, 1067–1075; King William’s leadership and
government; William II and his inheritance.
Doomesday book revealed William posseed 20% of England’s wealth, his bbarons 50%, and church had 25%. The surviving English
nobles had meagre 5% - anglosaxons defeated + normans taken over
§ Step 1 : coronation . After the Battle of Hastings, William hoped that the English would surrender. However, the Witan chose to make
Edgar Ætheling king. William took Dover, securing the route back to the coast. He then marched through Kent, looting, terrorising the
population and building castles as he went, before taking Canterbury. He took the royal treasury (where the royal wealth was kept) at
Winchester. He then headed to London, setting up camp outside the city at Barking. Meanwhile, many nobles became concerned
about Edgar’s ability to rule. In December, Edgar came to William to surrender the kingdom. William was crowned King of England at
Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, 1066. The atmosphere was tense and fighting broke out outside the Abbey.
§ Step 2 : William wanted to show that he was the legitimate (entitled) ruler of England, so he tried to make sure there was
continuity (green – continuity) between Edward the Confessor’s reign and his own. Figanbd remained archbishop of canterbury till
1070, and royal writs continued to be written in English until 1070s
§ He claiming all English land and giving the land of those who died at Hastings to his supporters (the land given AKA shires - in return
for shires they swore loyalty to william). But also Allowed English earls and thegns who had not fought at Hastings to buy back their
land.
§ . Putting his closest allies in charge of the south. But also Allowed English nobles to keep their positions if they submitted to him –
Earls Edwin, Morcar and Waltheof allowed their titles and lands. Same with Edgar Aethling.
§ Taking Edgar Ætheling, Edwin and Morcar with him to Normandy to discourage rebellion.. Kept them in comfort rather than having
them imprisoned or killed.
§ Controlling the borderlands: William created three new earldoms (Hereford, Shrewsbury and Chester) to protect the Marches – the
border with Wales. The Marcher earls had special rights and privileges
§ Rebellions had started from 1067, all the way to 1075. Reasons for early rebellions : Some English people hated having foreigners
ruling over them. Many Norman lords did not understand local customs. The more distant regions were harder to control. Many
families lost land and titles after the Conquest, which caused resentment. Some people had lost relatives at Hastings and wanted
revenge. William demanded high rates of tax, which caused poverty.
§ Step 3: Dealing with Early Revolts (1067-68)Rebellion on the Welsh border, 1067 The first large uprising against the Normans was
in Mercia. It was led by an English thegn called Eadric. Eadric had lost his land to Norman knights. He joined with two Welsh kings
and attacked Hereford, destroying the city. William returned from Normandy. Eadric was never caught and continued his attacks.
§ Kent and Northumbria, 1067 The people of Kent were angry about their treatment by the Normans. They persuaded a former ally of
William’s, Eustace of Boulogne, to attack Dover. His attack failed and Eustace went home. In Northumbria, William’s chosen ruler,
Copsig, was ambushed and murdered. William allowed Copsig’s killer to take over
§ Rebellion in Mercia and York 1068 :Several English earls, including Edwin and Morcar, had submitted to William in order to keep their
land and power. In 1068, they realised that their power was being chipped away so they led a revolt against William and several other
English nobles joined them. Edwin and Morcar again submitted to William, who pardoned them. William marched into Edwin’s lands
in Mercia, building a castle at Warwick and allowing his men to terrorise the population. He then moved north, building castles at
Nottingham, York, Lincoln, Huntingdon and Cambridge. William decided that he needed to put a trusted ally in charge of the north. He
appointed Robert de Comines to the job. RDC = new earl of northern Northumbria, but in Jan 1069 looting by him and his men led to
rebellion in Durham – RDC and his men killed.
§ Exeter – 1068 - King Harold’s mother, Gytha, plotted rebellion in Exeter and challenged William’s authority. She also tried to persuade
the Danish king to invade England. William was furious and marched an army to besiege Exeter. The rebels agreed to swear loyalty
to William. The city surrendered after 18 days – Gytha and her family escaped. William treated the rebels leniently, but he built a
castle in Exeter and others around the south west. In 1069, Harold’s sons tried to invade the south west. They were unsuccessful,
mainly because the city of Exeter refused to support them – partly due to presence of castle and garrison
§ In Feb 1069 , An uprising in York: the governor and Norman troops are killed. Edgar Ætheling comes down from Scotland to join the
rebellion. The Norman sheriff and his garrison are attacked - William races north with a large army and quickly ends the rebellion. •
William lays waste to the whole city of York and builds new castles. • William returns south for Easter.
§ The Danes attack York, September 1069 • King Sweyn of Denmark sends a large invasion fleet to England. • The Danish invasion
force meets up with Edgar Ætheling. • 21 September: in the AngloDanish attack on York, 3000 Normans are killed. • The Danes
retreat to the Lincolnshire coast. • William is in trouble. As well as the Danes and the rebels in the north, he is facing opposition
elsewhere. • New rebellions begin in Devon, Shrewsbury and Chester. • As soon as William’s forces subdue unrest in one region, it
starts again somewhere else. • The Danes bide their time, protected by marshland. William’s solutions (1) Pay the Danes to leave
England. (2) The Harrying of the North. (3) A symbolic show of power - William had his crown sent to York and wore it to celebrate
Christmas amidst the ruins of the city (in York) – Even Orderic Vitalis, who was often complimentary of the conqueror, criticized Wil
, liam
§ The Harrying of the North in 1069 showed that William was prepared to take extreme measures to keep England under his control.
The early medieval period was a violent time, but William’s Harrying of the North was seen as especially brutal, even by his
contemporaries.
§ Reasons for the Harrying : A military response to guerrilla warfare, which depended on support for rebels from local people. As a
warning to other areas of England of what could happen to them. To prevent Vikings using Yorkshire as a base for future attacks.
Revenge for the death of Robert de Comines and hundreds of other Normans. , To destroy the spirit of rebellion in the north.
Features : Homes destroyed so people had nowhere to shelter. Took place in the winter of 1069–70. Livestock killed. Area of
Harrying stretched from the Humber River to the Tees River. Also in Staffordshire and parts of Shropshire. Seed destroyed so there
was nothing to plant for food the next year . Immediate consequences : Death of thousands from starvation: perhaps as many as
100000 people died. Flood of refugees from the north to other parts of England, for example, the west. Reports of families selling
themselves into slavery to survive. Reports of cannibalism by desperate, starving people. Reasons for William’s success :
Opposition was not united making it easy for William to weaken them (for example by paying off the Danes). , William’s soldiers were
extremely effective against poorly armed rebels. , William’s methods were brutal, crushing immediate rebellion and making it
impossible for new rebellions to break out. Long-term consequences. No further rebellion from the north; after 1071 no further
Anglo-Saxon rebellions. Danish invaders in 1070 went to Ely as there was now no base for them in Yorkshire A turning point: after
1070 William decided to replace the English aristocracy with Normans. Criticism of William’s brutality and William’s own sense of his
sin and need for penance. William was criticised by the pope for his actions, and was said to have repented for the deaths of so
many people for the rest of his life. 20 years later, Yorkshire had still not recovered; 60 per cent was listed as ‘waste’ in the
Domesday Book and there were between 80,000 and 150, 000 fewer people than in 1066.
§ Step 5 : East Anglia : Hereward the Wake and rebellion at Ely Hereward had returned to Ely around 1069 from exile. He started a
rebellion because he had lost his lands to a new Norman lord. In 1070 the Danes returned and set up base in Ely. The Danes and
Hereward joined forces for a raid on Peterborough Abbey. Hereward had hoped to save the treasures of the monastery from the
Normans, but the Danes took all the treasure and sailed back to Denmark with it. Morcar and his men came to Ely and joined
Hereward. They defended Ely but the Normans eventually defeated them. Morcar was captured while Hereward escaped – but he
was not heard of again.
§ Step 6 : Dealing with Earl’s revolt 1075 - Roger, Earl of Hereford (the son of William’s friend William FitzOsbern) was angry at his
reduced influence. He plotted with another earl, Ralph de Gael, and the English earl Waltheof. The revolt was supported by the
Danes, who sent 200 ships. William was able to defeat the rebellion entirely. Waltheof never joined in – fled to normandy. The other
two earls were cornered before they could attack. Roger and Ralph lost their land. Waltheof was beheaded.
Carrying on Norman Dynasty
§ Earls revolt 1075 was last major revolt William faced – position was relatively secure in England, but position in Normandy had
deteriorated + spent a lot of time there keeping order
§ Battle of Mantes 1086 – William injured + damaged his intestines cos fell from saddle. After slow declining lasting 6 weeks, William
conqueror died 9th September 1087, aged 59. William was very overweight at death – his body wouldn’t fit into coffin + his swollen
bowels burst releasing an ‘intolerable stech’ according to the Orderic Vitalles
§ Relations between William conqueror + his oldest son Robert Curthose was poor – William called him ‘proud and silly’ à thus William
granted crown o England to second surviving son, William 2nd (William rufus). Robert wanted to rule both England and Normandy , so
Rufus’ appointment caused tension between the 2 bros. Youngest son , Henry given money but no land.
§ Rufus crowned king on 26 September 1087 by Archbishop Lanfranc in Canterbury Cathedral.
§ 1088, Bishop Odo of Bayeux plotted a rebellion with six leading barons. The barons held land in England and Normandy and did not
want to swear loyalty to two rulers (Robert was now Duke of Normandy) . Fact that Rufus and Robert were rivals made this more
problematic. Rufus found out about the plot from Bishop of Durham . He bought the barons off with promises like hunting rights
(which he never kept). Odo surrendered and, in 1091, William Rufus travelled to Normandy to challenge Robert + they managed to
agree terms. Robert’s involvement in First Crusade 1096 kept him away from England for rest of Rufus’ reign
§ William Rufus was killed in a hunting accident in 2nd August 1100. His younger brother Henry claimed the throne – so quickly that he
was suspected of plotting his brother’s death (although there is no proof of this). 1101 - Henry agreed with his brother Robert that
they would both keep to their own kingdoms. However, he went back on this , attacked Normandy in 1105, defeated Robert in Battle
of Trinchbrai in 1106 , by 1107, Henry ruled both Normandy and England, just as his father, William I, had done
Part two: Life under the Normans
Feudalism and government: roles, rights, and responsibilities; landholding and lordship; land distribution;
patronage; Anglo-Saxon and Norman government systems; the Anglo-Saxon and Norman aristocracies and
societies; military service; justice and the legal system such as ordeals, ‘murdrum’; inheritance; the
Domesday Book.
Feudalism and government
