A&P 102 Final Exam Ivy Tech

Who regulates pituitary gland secretion? - hypothalamus What is a hormone and how does it act? - Hormones are chemical messengers that are responsible for regulation. They are secreted into body fluids, mainly blood. It has specific actions on target tissues, which are any tissue that has specific receptors for that particular hormone. Compare and contrast glucagon and insulin. - Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and convert noncarbohydrates into glucose and it stimulates the breakdown of fats. Insulin promotes the formation of glycogen from glucose, inhibits conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose, and enhances movement of glucose through adipose and muscle cell membranes, decreasing blood glucose concentration and promotes transport of amino acids into cells, as well as enhances synthesis of proteins and fats. Both work to keep blood glucose concentration constant, but glucagon breaks down glycogen into glucose and insulin forms glycogen from glucose. How are pheromones different than hormones? - is a chemical signal sent between members of the same species. Are a type of hormone that are released in small quantities and play a big role in physical attraction between people. How is inhibin used in the body? - Inhibits the anterior pituitary gland by negative feedback. This action prevents over secretion of FSH. It is secreted by cells of the testes and ovaries. FSH is secreted by anterior pituitary gland. It is a glycoprotein hormone. Differentiate between paracrine, autocrine, endocrine, and exocrine glands. - Paracrine - hormones enter the interstitial fluid but affect only neighboring cells. Autocrine - hormones affect only the secreting cell. Endocrine - hormones are secreted from the interstitial fluid into the bloodstream and act on target cells. Exocrine - secretions enter tubes or ducts that lead to body surfaces. Describe steroid hormones. - Sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormones. Steroid hormones diffuse through cell membranes and enter cytoplasm or nucleus. Then they combine with a receptor molecule, which together bind to DNA and promote transcription of messenger RNA. mRNA enters the cytoplasm and directs protein synthesis. Newly synthesized proteins produce hormone's specific effects. Describe tropic hormones. - They stimulate the activity of endocrine glands than those secreting them. Describe normal blood: number of each cell type, pH. - Describe normal blood: number of each cell type, pH. CLICK THE CARD TO FLIP IT Blood is about 8% of body weight. Adult blood volume is about 5 L. RBC count is usually 4,600,000-6,200,000 in males, 4,200,000-5,400,000 in females. WBC are usually 5,000-10,000 per cubic mm of blood. Platelets are usually 130,000-360,000 per cubic mm of blood. Normal blood pH is around 7.4. How does the Rh factor affect a developing fetus and its mother? - Rh positive - presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on the RBC membranes. Rh negative - lack of these antigens If a mother is Rh negative and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies form to fight Rh-positive blood cells. If a mother is Rh positive and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies attack the baby's RBC. Complications can lead the baby to develop erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease. What antigens can be found on RBC? What antibodies can be found in the plasma? How do these create different blood types? - Type A blood has A antigens on its cell surface and anti-B antibodies in its plasma. Type B blood has B antigens on its cell surface and anti-A antibodies in its plasma. Type AB blood has both A and B antigens on its cell surface and no antibodies in its plasma. (It is the universal recipient). Type O blood has no antigens on its cell surface, but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in its plasma. (It is the universal donor). Describe the different leukocytes and their origins. - Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes Lymphocytes Compare the formed elements of the blood. - RBCs, WBCs, and platelets all act together to maintain life. RBCs transport oxygen to the body's tissues, WBCs fight infections in the body, and platelets clot wounds that occur. Describe the steps in clot formation. - Hemostasis - the stoppage of bleeding. 1. Blood vessel spasm - smooth muscle in blood vessel contracts 2. Platelet plug formation: a. break in vessel wall b. blood escapes through break c. platelets adhere to each other, to end of broken vessel, and to exposed collagen d. platelet plug helps control blood loss 3. Blood coagulation - clot forms (occurs extrinsically or intrinsically). What blood types can give/receive to/from other blood types? - O+ give to: O+, A+, B+, AB+ receive: O+,OA+ give to: A+, AB+ receive: A+, A-, O+, OB+ give to: B+, AB+ receive: B+, B-, O+, OAB+ give to: AB+ only receive: All blood types O- give to: All blood types receive: O- only A- give to: A-, A+, AB-, AB+ receive: A-, OB- give to: B-, B+, AB-, AB+ receive: B-, OAB- give to: AB-, AB+ receive: AB-, A-, B-, OWhat are normal levels and percentages of RBC, WBC and platelets? - 4,600,000- 6,200,000 in males. 4,200,000-5,400,000 in females. 4,500,000-5,100,000 in children. RBCs are 45% of the blood. Neutrophils 50%-70% Eosinophils 1%-4% Basophils 0-1% Lymphocytes 20%-35% Monocytes 3%-8% Compare serum versus plasma. - Plasma is the liquid part of blood, in which blood cells, nutrients and hormones float. Serum is the fluid part of blood, without the clotting factors or blood cells. What is hematocrit? - percent of blood volume that is RBCs How is the ANS used to regulate blood pressure? - The autonomic nervous system regulates the blood pressure via several mechanisms. It regulates the degree of constriction or dilation of the blood vessels in body. Constriction of the blood vessels will result in an increase in the blood pressure and dilation of the blood vessels will result in a decrease in the blood pressure. The autonomic nervous system also alters the cardiac output, which will influence the blood pressure. Cardiac output is determined by multiplying the heart rate x the stroke volume. The stroke volume being the amount of blood ejected from the heart with each beat. The sympathetic nervous system ("fight or flight" system) results in an increase in heart rate and strength of heart contraction leading to a greater stroke volume. This increased cardiac output results in an elevation in the blood pressure usually. The parasympathetic nervous system is the "rest and digest" system that results in a decrease heart rate and stroke volume, which results in a lowering in the blood pressure. So, the autonomic nervous system controls the blood pressure through a few mechanisms and they usually occur simultaneously. What are the functions of the cardiovascular system? - The four major functions of the cardiovascular system are: 1. To transport nutrients, gases and waste products around the body 2. To protect the body from infection and blood loss 3. To help the body maintain a constant body temperature 4. To help maintain fluid balance within the body What factors can influence heart rate and/or blood pressure? - age, stress and emotions, medication, Diurnal variation, sex, environment, exercise, body position Identify the major arteries/veins of the body. - Major arteries: Ascending aorta->right and left coronary a. Brachiocephalic a., Left common carotid a., and the Left subclavian a. Descending aorta Thoracic aorta->Bronchial artery, Pericardial a., Esophageal a., Mediastinal a., Posterior intercostal a. Abdominal aorta-> Celiac a., Phrenic a., Superior mesenteric a., Suprarenal a., Renal a., Gonadal a., Inferior mesenteric a., Lumbar a., Middle sacral a., Common iliac a. Major veins: Superior and Inferior vena cava, right and left external and internal jugular and subclavian v., right and left brachiocephalic v., hepatic v., splenic v., right and left common iliac v., external and internal iliac v., femoral v., great saphenous v., small saphenous v. At any given moment, where can blood be found in the body? - The veins Describe the layers of the heart and pericardium. - The outer layer of the heart is the fibrous pericardium (also the epicardium). The inner layer of the pericardium is the visceral pericardium (it lies against the heart). And the outer layer of the pericardium is the parietal pericardium which lies against the wall of the pericardial cavity. The heart has three layers as well. The innermost layer is the endocardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and the outermost layer is the epicardium (also the fibrous pericardium). Compare and contrast pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation. - Pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation all work together to provide oxygen to the body and the heart and remove carbon dioxide waste from both. Pulmonary circulation is that which goes to and from the heart and lungs, oxygenating the blood and removing carbon dioxide from it. Coronary circulation is the blood supply provided to the heart and it oxygenates the heart. Systemic circulation is circulation from the heart to the whole body and back, dropping off oxygen to the body's tissues and picking up carbon dioxide to remove it from the body. What terms are used to describe abnormal heart rhythms? - Arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation, bradycardia, tachycardia, defibrillation, cardiac arrest, palpitations, Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), Ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation. Describe the pathway of blood into, through, and out of the heart- including valves. - The blood enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and the coronary sinus and as it contracts, the blood is pushed through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From there, the ventricles contract, pushing the blood into the pulmonary semi-lunar valve and out to the lungs. The blood is oxygenated and returns to the heart by the pulmonary veins, into the left atrium. The heart contracts and the blood is pushed through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the left ventricle. As the heart contracts again, the blood is pushed out of the left ventricle, through the aortic semi-lunar valve and out to the rest of the body. What is arteriosclerosis? How does it occur? - Thickening and hardening of vessel walls. Lipid and collagen fibers migrate into the vessel walls. Chronic disease of arterial system. Describe the pathway of the cardiac conduction system. - The cardiac cycle begins in the right atrial wall at the sinoatrial node (SA node). After the SA node conducts an impulse, there is a very brief period before it is sent to the atrioventricular (AV) node. From the AV node, the impulse is sent down the interventricular septum to the Bundle of His, which conducts the impulse down the right and left bundle branches to the purkinje fibers which travel from the apex to the outer sides of the heart. Describe an EKG. What is occurring within the heart during each part of the EKG? - A recordable tracing of the electrical activity of the heart that the production and conduction of action potentials in the heart produces. What types of cells provide our immunity? - T cells and B cells What is the function of lymph? - filters the blood by removing toxins How does stress affect immunity? - With chronic stress, the immune system stays in low gear, leaving the body vulnerable to infection and disease. Basically, it suppresses it. Compare and contrast passive versus active immunity. - immunity that results from the production of antibodies against a foreign antigen state of permanent resistance duration: long immunity that results from transfer of antibodies from one individual to another immunity only provides temporary protection duration: short Compare and contrast primary versus secondary immune responses. - primary: body is first exposed to antigen, lymphocyte is activated. secondary: same antigen is encountered at a later time. It is faster and of greater magnitude. Describe a lymphatic vessel. - Fine, thin-walled, transparent valved channels distributed through most tissues. They have 3 walls: intima, media, and adventitia. How is interleukin-1 used? - It helps activate T cells. Describe the roles of IgG, IgD, IgE, IgA, and IgM. - IgG- is in plasma and tissue fluids and is effective against bacteria, virsuses, and toxins and it activates complement proteins. IgA- is in breast milk, tears, nasal fluid, gastric juice, intestinal juice, and urine and it is an exocrine gland secretion. IgM- is a type of antibody produced in plasma in response to contact with certain antigens in foods or bacteria. IgD- is on the surfaces of most B cells and acts as an antigen receptor and is important in activating B cells. IgE- appears in exocrine secretions with IgA. It is associated with allergic reactions. Compare and contrast innate barriers versus adaptive immunity. - 1. Physical 2. Cellular 3. Chemical Adaptive: Acquired immunity that develops in response to antigens. It is SPECIFIC to the antigen. Specificity is determined by B-cells and T-cells. Describe the different glands associated with the lymphatic system. What are their functions? - Thymus gland - where T cells mature. Bone marrow - where B and T cells are created. Lymph nodes - clean and filter lymph and act as immune surveillance. Spleen - consists of white pulp (packed with lymphocytes) and red pulp (blood, lymphocytes, and macrophages that fill venous sinuses). Tonsils & adenoids - trap pathogens humans breathe in. How does an autoimmune disease work? - An autoimmune disease arises when the body's cells lose their ability to distinguish between self and non-self antigens. When this happens, the body mounts an immune response against what is really healthy tissue, (but they think is a foreign particle), and the body attacks itself causing tissue, organ, and joint damage as well as pain, fever, and swelling. What is pus? - dead neutrophils Describe differences between T cells and B cells. - --B cells are most effective in fighting bacteria. Major function is to produce antibody. There are memory B cells that stay in the body for long periods of time and when same antigen enters the body, they can make antibody very quickly. They start in the bone marrow as undifferentiated cells and then somehow are altered to have surface antigens that identify them as B cells. The fully mature B cell is a plasma cell that has the ability to make antibody. --T cells are a type of white blood cell that is of key importance to the immune system and is at the core of adaptive immunity, the system that tailors the body's immune response to specific pathogens. The T cells are like soldiers who search out and destroy the targeted invaders. What can be found in (normal) feces? - electrolytes. undigested food. bacteria. Differentiate between primary and permanent teeth. - There are 20 primary (baby) teeth. There are 32 secondary (permanent) teeth. Differentiate between the functions of the different organs of the GI tract. - Organs: -mouth (mechanical breakdown of food; begins chemical breakdown of carbs) -pharynx (connects mouth with esophagus) -esophagus (peristalsis pushes food to stomach) -stomach (secretes acid and enzymes; mixes food with secretions to begin enzymatic digestion of proteins) -small intestine (mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice; final enzymatic breakdown of food molecules; main site of nutrient absorption) -large intestine (absorbs water and electrolytes to form feces) -rectum (regulates elimination of feces) -anus Accessory organs: -liver (produces bile, which emulsifies fat) -gallbladder (stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine) -pancreas (produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine) -salivary glands (secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs) What are the functions of the digestive system? - digestion, absorption, elimination Describe the different enzymes/chemicals used within digestion, where they are used, and what they digest. - Pepsinogen: Inactive form of pepsin; secreted by chief cells Pepsin: Active enzyme that beaks down proteins into polypeptides; forms from pepsinogen in presence of hydrochloric acid Gastric lipase: Fat-splitting enzyme, found in small quantities; action inhibited by low pH Hydrochloric acid: Produced by parietal cells; converts pepsinogen into pepsin Mucus: Secreted by mucous cells; provides lubrication and protects stomach lining Intrinsic factor: Produced by parietal cells; required for absorption of vitamin B12 Describe the different types of motility and mixing within the digestive system. - Food is first mixed with saliva in the mouth and then is pushed down the esophagus by peristalsis. Then it is mixed with gastric juice and pushed into the small and large intestine where it is moved along toward the rectum by segmentation. What are the functions of the accessory organs/glands in the digestive system? - Organs: -mouth (mechanical breakdown of food; begins chemical breakdown of carbs) -pharynx (connects mouth with esophagus) -esophagus (peristalsis pushes food to stomach) -stomach (secretes acid and enzymes; mixes food with secretions to begin enzymatic digestion of proteins) -small intestine (mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice; final enzymatic breakdown of food molecules; main site of nutrient absorption) -large intestine (absorbs water and electrolytes to form feces) -rectum (regulates elimination of feces) -anus Accessory organs: -liver (produces bile, which emulsifies fat) -gallbladder (stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine) -pancreas (produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine) -salivary glands (secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs) What is bile? How does it work? - Bile is a yellowish-green liquid that hepatic cells continuously secrete. It contains water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes. The bile salts in it work to emulsify fats as well as help absorb fatty acids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins. What is heartburn? - when the gastric jucies backflow into the esophagus Describe the nervous system's role for digestion. - Parasympathetic impulses increase activities of digestive system. Sympathetic impulses inhibit certain digestive actions. Differentiate between mechanical and chemical digestion within the different organs of the GI tract. - Digestion in the mouth is mechanical and also chemical in that it both breaks up food mechanically with the teeth and chemically with enzymes in the saliva. Digestion in the stomach is chemical as it mixes the food with gastric juice, including pepsin and HCl. The small intestine mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice, breaking food down chemically with enzymes. The liver produces bile, which emulsifies fat--chemical digestion. The gallbladder stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine--chemical digestion. The pancreas produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine--chemical breakdown. And the salivary glands secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs (also chemical). Describe the layers of the GI tract. - 4 layers: -mucosa (epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle) -submucosa (loose connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves) -muscular layer (smooth muscle fibers in circular and longitudinal groups) -serosa (epithelium, connective tissue) What is metabolic acidosis? How is it caused? How can it be corrected? - Metabolic acidosis: a condition characterized by a deficiency of bicarbonate ions in the body in relation to the amount of carbonic acid in the body, in which the pH falls to less than 7.35 Caused: - Diabetic Ketoacidosis - Lactic acidosis - Starvation - Severe diarrhea - renal failure - GI fistulas - shock Corrected: -correct underlying cause -discontinuation of thiazide diuretics - antiemetics -acetazolamide What is produced during nucleic acid metabolism? - protein/polypeptide chain How is water involved in metabolism? - Water is the medium for various enzymatic & chemical reactions in the body. It moves nutrients, hormones, antibodies and oxygen through the blood stream and lymphatic system. Which metabolic reactions release hydrogen ions into body fluids? - -Anaerobic respiration of glucose -Aerobic respiration of glucose -Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids -Oxidation of sulfur-containing amino acids What is cholesterol? What is its role within the body? - It is a waxy lipid (sterol) whose chemical structure contains mulitple hydrocarbon rings. major structural component in cell membranes. The liver uses it to produce bile salts which emulsify fats. Describe the different roles of vitamins/minerals in the body. What happens if you have a deficiency of a specific vitamin/mineral? - Vitamins are organic compounds that are required for normal metabolism. Minerals are inorganic elements essential in human metabolism. Too much vitamin C or zinc could cause nausea, diarrhea, and stomach cramps. Too much selenium could lead to hair loss, gastrointestinal upset, fatigue, and mild nerve damage. What is a trace element? - An element that is required in miniscule amounts for life What is an "adequate diet"? What are some examples of an in-adequate diet? - An adequate diet is that which provides sufficient energy (calories), essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals to support optimal growth and to maintain and repair body tissues. An in-adequate diet could arise from malnutrition (deficiency of essential nutrients), or overnutrition (excess of nutrient intake) or starvation. What is BMI? BMR? - BMI - Body mass index, used to assess weight considering height. BMR - Basal metabolic rate, rate at which body expends energy at rest. What are the differences between fat and water soluble vitamins? - Fat-soluble vitamins dissolve in fats and are influenced by lipids. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamins B and C. Too many water-soluble vitamins results in excess being excreted in the urine. Too many fat-soluble vitamins results in extra fat stores in the body. Give examples of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids within the body. - Carbs - glucose and sucrose. Protein - enzymes, hemoglobin, actin. Fats - steroids, triglycerides, phospholipids. Why are B vitamins necessary? - Are essential for normal cellular metabolism. They help oxidize carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins during cellular respiration. What occurs during hyperventilation? - Patient breathes faster and/or deeper than the metabolic needs of the body, eliminating more carbon dioxide than is being produced. May experience respirations 22-40/minute. How are the left lung and right lung different from each other? - Left lung is smaller with 2 lobes. Right lung is larger with 3 lobes. How does the respiratory system aid in maintaining proper blood pH? - Gas exchange in the lungs also helps maintain acid-base balance in the body. If the pH of the blood becomes too acidic, the breathing rate increases. This reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood so the pH increases toward normal. What parts of the brain affect respiration? - pons and medulla What happens during normal inspiration/expiration? - Inspiration - the diaphragm extends upward and the intercostal muscles push the rib cage outward. Expiration - the diaphragm relaxes and the intercostal muscles undergo elastic recoil, allowing the rib cage to go back to its former position. What makes carbon monoxide so toxic? - It's ability to better bind to hemoglobin than oxygen. Which skeletal muscles are involved in respiration? - Diaphragm. External Intercostals. External Oblique. Internal Intercostals. Internal Oblique. Pectoralis Major. Rectus Abdominus. Serratus Anterior. Sternocleidomastodeus. Transverse Abdominus. What risks are associated with secondary smoke? - Ear infections, asthma attacks, lung infections, coughing and wheezing, SIDS (in children), heart disease, and cancer. Where can sinuses be found? - In the frontal, sphenoid, and maxillary bones. What are the parts of respiration? - Nose, mucus and nose hairs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli What happens to the respiratory system with emphysema? Asthma? - When emphysema develops, the alveoli and lung tissue are destroyed. With this damage, the alveoli cannot support the bronchial tubes. Asthma: a respiratory condition marked by spasms in the bronchi of the lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. It usually results from an allergic reaction or other forms of hypersensitivity. What causes us to inhale and exhale? - inhalation and exhalation are caused by changes in alveolar pressure Describe the histology of alveoli. - Alveoli are made up of: Type I (Squamous Alveolar) cells that form the alveolar wall; Type II (Great Alveolar) cells that secrete surfactant; and Macrophages, which destroy foreign material, such as bacteria. What are the functions of the nasal passageways? - warm, moisten, and cleanse the incoming air What parts make up the nephron? - Renal corpuscle