CH 2: PROCESSES OF SCIENTIFIC REASONING
Deductive reasoning: results predicted based on a general premise
● All living things require energy to survive (premise), ducks are living
things, therefore ducks require energy to survive (conclusion).
Inductive Reasoning: conclusions are drawn from observations
● You see many fruits growing on trees and therefore assume all fruit
grows on trees.
Theory – well-developed ideas that proposed explanations for observed
phenomena.
Hypothesis – tentative and testable statement about relationship between
variables.
● Predicts how the world will behave if the theory is correct
● “if-then” statement.
● capable of being shown to be incorrect
Independent Variable – Variable that is influenced/controlled by the
experimenter. Ideally this should be the only important difference between the
experimental and control group. (what changes)
Dependent Variable – Variable that the researcher measures to see how much
effect the independent variable had. (measurement)
DIFFERENT MODALITIES TO COLLECT DATA
Case study:
● focus on one individual
● Allows for a lot of insight into a case.
● Difficult to generalize results to the larger population.
, ○ EX: Genie was studied by psychologists after she was found at age
13, having suffered severe abuse and social isolation. Psychologists
were interested in the effect social isolation had on her development.
Observation of behavior in its natural setting:
● To study the most accurate and genuine behaviors, naturalistic
observation has proven most effective.
● Observer bias - when observations may be skewed to align with observer
expectations.
● Establishment of clear criteria to observe should help eliminate observer
bias.
○ EX: Seeing a police car behind you would probably affect your
driving behavior.
Survey:
● Paper, verbal, electronic
● Used to gather large amounts of data (larger population)
Archival research:
● Uses past records
○ EX: How many people had pets in the 1900’s? (pull up old files)
Longitudinal and cross sectional research:
● Longitudinal: starting a study with a boy and finishing it when hes 50.
Same subjects over time.
● Cross-Sectional Research – Compares multiple segments of a
population at a single time (such as different age groups).
● Attrition - reduction in number of research participants as some drop out
of the study over time.
Correlational research:
● Correlation – Relationship between two or more variables; when two
variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does.
● Correlation Coefficient - number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength
and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually
represented by r.
Deductive reasoning: results predicted based on a general premise
● All living things require energy to survive (premise), ducks are living
things, therefore ducks require energy to survive (conclusion).
Inductive Reasoning: conclusions are drawn from observations
● You see many fruits growing on trees and therefore assume all fruit
grows on trees.
Theory – well-developed ideas that proposed explanations for observed
phenomena.
Hypothesis – tentative and testable statement about relationship between
variables.
● Predicts how the world will behave if the theory is correct
● “if-then” statement.
● capable of being shown to be incorrect
Independent Variable – Variable that is influenced/controlled by the
experimenter. Ideally this should be the only important difference between the
experimental and control group. (what changes)
Dependent Variable – Variable that the researcher measures to see how much
effect the independent variable had. (measurement)
DIFFERENT MODALITIES TO COLLECT DATA
Case study:
● focus on one individual
● Allows for a lot of insight into a case.
● Difficult to generalize results to the larger population.
, ○ EX: Genie was studied by psychologists after she was found at age
13, having suffered severe abuse and social isolation. Psychologists
were interested in the effect social isolation had on her development.
Observation of behavior in its natural setting:
● To study the most accurate and genuine behaviors, naturalistic
observation has proven most effective.
● Observer bias - when observations may be skewed to align with observer
expectations.
● Establishment of clear criteria to observe should help eliminate observer
bias.
○ EX: Seeing a police car behind you would probably affect your
driving behavior.
Survey:
● Paper, verbal, electronic
● Used to gather large amounts of data (larger population)
Archival research:
● Uses past records
○ EX: How many people had pets in the 1900’s? (pull up old files)
Longitudinal and cross sectional research:
● Longitudinal: starting a study with a boy and finishing it when hes 50.
Same subjects over time.
● Cross-Sectional Research – Compares multiple segments of a
population at a single time (such as different age groups).
● Attrition - reduction in number of research participants as some drop out
of the study over time.
Correlational research:
● Correlation – Relationship between two or more variables; when two
variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does.
● Correlation Coefficient - number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength
and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually
represented by r.
