GENDER BIAS- treat individual/group in different way from others. Research offers a view that
doesn’t represent experience of behaviour of men/women.
UNIVERSALITY- underlying characteristic/conclusions that can be applied to all and everyone despite
differences of experience and upbringing. Gender and culture bias threaten universality of findings in
psychology.
ALPHA BIAS- research focusing on differences between men and women so presents a view that
exaggerates these differences. The differences are presented as fixed and inevitable. Sometimes
differences heighten value of women but mostly devalue women in relation to men. EXAMPLE- freud
psychosexual development- he says girls are morally inferior to boys bc in the phallic stage the desire
that they develop for opposite gender parent- boy has v strong castration anxiety and resolved when
he identifies w father. In girl her eventual identification w same gender parent is weaker which
means superego is weaker.
PSYCHODYMAMIC APPROACH- favours women- suggested that daughters and mothers have greater
connectedness than sons and mothers due to bio similarities. So women develop better bonding and
emphasising abilities.
BETA BIAS- research focusing on similarities between men and women so presents view that
ignores/minimises differences. It ignores or underestimates differences, assuming research findings
apply equally to men and women. Results in misinterpretation of women’s behaviour. EXAMPLE
FIGHT OR FLIGHT- bio research generally favours using male animals as female behaviour is affected
by hormonal changes in ovulation. This ignores any possible differences.it assumes that both
genders respond to threatening situations w fight or flight.
TAYLOR ET AL claims this is not true, women have a diff response tend or befriend. Oxytocin is more
plentiful in women so women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production. This reduces fight
or flight response and enhances preference of tend or befriend.
Misinterpreting men- attachment assumes emotional care only provided by mothers.
ANDROCENTRISM- male centred. Normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard so
therefore female behaviour judged abnormal. ALPHA AND BETA ARE consequences of
androcentrism. Psychology has presented a male dominated version of world. Women’s behaviour
has been pathologized- taken as sign of illness.
LIMITATION- gender differences presented as fixed and enduring when they r not. Study presented
findings of several gender studies concluding that girls have superior verbal ability and boys have
superior spatial ability. Suggests these differences are hardwired into brain before birth. This
becomes widely reported and seen as facts. Study used brain scanning found that there are not sex
diff in brain structure. Wary accepting research findings as bio facts when they r social stereotypes.
COUNTERPOINT STRENGTH- psychologists shouldn’t avoid studying gender differences in brain.
Study suggests that popular stereotype that women are better at multitasking may have biological
truth. Their brains may benefit from forming better connections between right and left hemisphere
than men. There may be bio differences.
LIMITATION- gender bias promotes sexism in research process. Women are underrepresented in uni
departments In science. Lecturers in psych are more likely men. Research is more likely conducted
by men so this disadvantages female p’s. eg male researcher expects women to be irrational and
, unable to complete complex tasks= expectations mean women underperform in studies.
Institutional structures produced gender biased findings.
LIMITATION- research challenging gender bias may not be published. Study analysed more than
1000 articles relating to gender bias, it is funded less often and published by less prestigious journals.
Fewer scholars are aware of it and don’t apply it to their work. Gender bias may not be taken
seriously in psych research as other forms of bias.
CULTURAL BIAS- tendency to interpret all phenomena through lens of own culture, ignoring effects
of cultural differences on behaviour. HENRICH ET AL reviewed studies found that 68% research p’s
are from US AND 96% industrialised nations. What we know about human behaviour had strong
cultural bias. Psychologists claim to discover facts about universal human behaviour. Henrich coined
term WEIRD- westernised educated ppl from industrialised rich democracies- the group most
studied by psychologists. The behaviour of ppl from non western is considered abnormal/inferior.
ETHNOCENTRISM- judging other cultures by standards and values of own culture belief in superiority
of own culture leads to prejudice and discrimination to other cultures. AINSWORTH- strange
situation- only reflects norms and values of western culture. Suggested ideal attachment type is
babies showing moderate stress when left alone (secure attachment). But what about different
rearing practises on other countries that deviate from American norm? Japanese infant more likely
classed as insecurely attached as they show distress on separation but this is bc they were rarely
separated from mother.
CULTURAL RELATIVSIM- norms, values. Ethics, moral standards can only be meaningful and
understood in specific social and cultural contexts. Etic approach looks at behaviour from outside of
culture and describes behaviours as universal. Emic is from inside culture and identifies behaviours
specific to that culture. AINSWORTH- imposed etic- studied behaviour inside one culture and
assumed ideal attachment type could be applied universally. Psychology is guilty of imposed etic
approach- theories, models, concepts are universal when acctually they come about through emic
research inside single culture.
LIMITATION- most influential studies are culturally biased- it’s a classic feature of social influence
studies- asch and Milgram conducted exclusively w US p’s. replications of it In diff countries
produced diff results. Asch in collectivist culture found higher rates of conformity than in an
individualist culture. Our understanding of these topics should only be applied in individualist
cultures.
COUNTERPOINT STRENGTH- individualist collectivist culture no longer applies in increased age of
media globalisation. Traditional- individualist values independence and collectivist is needs of group.
14 out of 15 studies comparing US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism so
distinction is simplistic. Cultural bias is less of an issue recently.
Strength - emergence of cultural psych. This is study of how ppl shape and are shaped by cultural
experience. Incorporates research from anthropology, sociology, political science. Cultural
psychologists avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking emic approach and conducted research from
inside culture. Modern psychologist are mindful of dangers of cultural bias and take steps to avoid.
LIMITATION- led to prejudice against groups of ppl- 1 st intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies
in US. Psychologists used opportunity of WW1 to pilot first IQ tests on 1.75million army recruits.
Items In test were ethnocentric- assumed everyone would know names of US presidents. Those
from south eastern Europe and African Americans had lowest results. This was taken to inform racist
doesn’t represent experience of behaviour of men/women.
UNIVERSALITY- underlying characteristic/conclusions that can be applied to all and everyone despite
differences of experience and upbringing. Gender and culture bias threaten universality of findings in
psychology.
ALPHA BIAS- research focusing on differences between men and women so presents a view that
exaggerates these differences. The differences are presented as fixed and inevitable. Sometimes
differences heighten value of women but mostly devalue women in relation to men. EXAMPLE- freud
psychosexual development- he says girls are morally inferior to boys bc in the phallic stage the desire
that they develop for opposite gender parent- boy has v strong castration anxiety and resolved when
he identifies w father. In girl her eventual identification w same gender parent is weaker which
means superego is weaker.
PSYCHODYMAMIC APPROACH- favours women- suggested that daughters and mothers have greater
connectedness than sons and mothers due to bio similarities. So women develop better bonding and
emphasising abilities.
BETA BIAS- research focusing on similarities between men and women so presents view that
ignores/minimises differences. It ignores or underestimates differences, assuming research findings
apply equally to men and women. Results in misinterpretation of women’s behaviour. EXAMPLE
FIGHT OR FLIGHT- bio research generally favours using male animals as female behaviour is affected
by hormonal changes in ovulation. This ignores any possible differences.it assumes that both
genders respond to threatening situations w fight or flight.
TAYLOR ET AL claims this is not true, women have a diff response tend or befriend. Oxytocin is more
plentiful in women so women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production. This reduces fight
or flight response and enhances preference of tend or befriend.
Misinterpreting men- attachment assumes emotional care only provided by mothers.
ANDROCENTRISM- male centred. Normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard so
therefore female behaviour judged abnormal. ALPHA AND BETA ARE consequences of
androcentrism. Psychology has presented a male dominated version of world. Women’s behaviour
has been pathologized- taken as sign of illness.
LIMITATION- gender differences presented as fixed and enduring when they r not. Study presented
findings of several gender studies concluding that girls have superior verbal ability and boys have
superior spatial ability. Suggests these differences are hardwired into brain before birth. This
becomes widely reported and seen as facts. Study used brain scanning found that there are not sex
diff in brain structure. Wary accepting research findings as bio facts when they r social stereotypes.
COUNTERPOINT STRENGTH- psychologists shouldn’t avoid studying gender differences in brain.
Study suggests that popular stereotype that women are better at multitasking may have biological
truth. Their brains may benefit from forming better connections between right and left hemisphere
than men. There may be bio differences.
LIMITATION- gender bias promotes sexism in research process. Women are underrepresented in uni
departments In science. Lecturers in psych are more likely men. Research is more likely conducted
by men so this disadvantages female p’s. eg male researcher expects women to be irrational and
, unable to complete complex tasks= expectations mean women underperform in studies.
Institutional structures produced gender biased findings.
LIMITATION- research challenging gender bias may not be published. Study analysed more than
1000 articles relating to gender bias, it is funded less often and published by less prestigious journals.
Fewer scholars are aware of it and don’t apply it to their work. Gender bias may not be taken
seriously in psych research as other forms of bias.
CULTURAL BIAS- tendency to interpret all phenomena through lens of own culture, ignoring effects
of cultural differences on behaviour. HENRICH ET AL reviewed studies found that 68% research p’s
are from US AND 96% industrialised nations. What we know about human behaviour had strong
cultural bias. Psychologists claim to discover facts about universal human behaviour. Henrich coined
term WEIRD- westernised educated ppl from industrialised rich democracies- the group most
studied by psychologists. The behaviour of ppl from non western is considered abnormal/inferior.
ETHNOCENTRISM- judging other cultures by standards and values of own culture belief in superiority
of own culture leads to prejudice and discrimination to other cultures. AINSWORTH- strange
situation- only reflects norms and values of western culture. Suggested ideal attachment type is
babies showing moderate stress when left alone (secure attachment). But what about different
rearing practises on other countries that deviate from American norm? Japanese infant more likely
classed as insecurely attached as they show distress on separation but this is bc they were rarely
separated from mother.
CULTURAL RELATIVSIM- norms, values. Ethics, moral standards can only be meaningful and
understood in specific social and cultural contexts. Etic approach looks at behaviour from outside of
culture and describes behaviours as universal. Emic is from inside culture and identifies behaviours
specific to that culture. AINSWORTH- imposed etic- studied behaviour inside one culture and
assumed ideal attachment type could be applied universally. Psychology is guilty of imposed etic
approach- theories, models, concepts are universal when acctually they come about through emic
research inside single culture.
LIMITATION- most influential studies are culturally biased- it’s a classic feature of social influence
studies- asch and Milgram conducted exclusively w US p’s. replications of it In diff countries
produced diff results. Asch in collectivist culture found higher rates of conformity than in an
individualist culture. Our understanding of these topics should only be applied in individualist
cultures.
COUNTERPOINT STRENGTH- individualist collectivist culture no longer applies in increased age of
media globalisation. Traditional- individualist values independence and collectivist is needs of group.
14 out of 15 studies comparing US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism so
distinction is simplistic. Cultural bias is less of an issue recently.
Strength - emergence of cultural psych. This is study of how ppl shape and are shaped by cultural
experience. Incorporates research from anthropology, sociology, political science. Cultural
psychologists avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking emic approach and conducted research from
inside culture. Modern psychologist are mindful of dangers of cultural bias and take steps to avoid.
LIMITATION- led to prejudice against groups of ppl- 1 st intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies
in US. Psychologists used opportunity of WW1 to pilot first IQ tests on 1.75million army recruits.
Items In test were ethnocentric- assumed everyone would know names of US presidents. Those
from south eastern Europe and African Americans had lowest results. This was taken to inform racist
