General Biology 1 exam 1 with 100% correct answers 2024.

basic features of life - answer-1. cells = simplest unit of life 2. living organisms maintain homeostasis 3. living organisms interact with their environment 4. living organisms use energy 5. living organisms grow and develop 6. genetic material provides a blueprint for reproduction 7. populations evolve from one generation to the next 8. all species (past and present) are related by an evolutionary history CHEEGER cell theory - answer-states that 1) all organisms are composed of cells, 2) cells are the smallest units of life, 3) new cells come from preexisting cells via cell division respiration - answer-metabolic reactions that a cell uses to get energy from food molecules and release waste products metabolism - answer-sum total of all chemical reactions that occur within an organism; chemical reactions involved with the breakdown and synthesis of cellular molecules photosynthesis - answer-process whereby light energy is captured by plant, algal, or bacterial cells, and is used to synthesize organic molecules from CO2 and H2O homeostasis - answer-process whereby living organisms regulate their cells and bodies to maintain relatively stable internal conditions - (regulate cellular metabolism so nutrient molecules are used at an appropriate rate and new cellular components are synthesized when they are needed) growth - answer-increase in weight or size; production of more or larger cells development - answer-series of changes in the state of an organism; the underlying process that gives rise to the structure and function of the organism; produces organisms with a defined set of characteristics; developmental sequence is determined by genome DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - answer-genetic material that provides a blueprint for the organization, development, and function of living things 5 core concepts of biology - answer-1. systems (living systems are interconnected and interacting) 2. pathways & transformations of energy/matter 3. information flow, exchange, & storage 4. evolution 5. structure & function biology - answer-scientific study of living organisms and how they have evolved evolution - answer-heritable change; phenomenon that populations of organisms change from one generation to the next evolution is not... - answer-1. progressive (there is no end point) 2. goal oriented 3. starting from scratch (it modifies preexisting structures) unity - answer-all organisms share certain basic properties in common diversity - answer-differences in form, shape, function, structure, color, etc. living and nonliving both... - answer-1. are comprised of the same particles and chemical elements (C, H, O, P, N, S) 2. obey the same physical and chemical laws What do we need for life? - answer-1. heredity materials (DNA, RNA) 2. raw materials (building blocks to create organism out of) 3. energy inputs (to hold and maintain life) binomial nomenclature - answer-"two word names"; universal & Latin-based; first word = genus, second word = specific epithet; always underlined or italicized; system created by Carl Linnaeus "Systema Naturae" - answer-created by Carolus Linnaeus; classified organisms into nested hierarchies based on shared similarities genus - answer-first word in binomial nomenclature; may occur alone, capitalized specific epithet - answer-second word in binomial nomenclature; must be preceded by genus; lowercase taxonomy - answer-field of biology concerned with the theory, practice, and rules of classifying living and extinct organisms and viruses; species with a recent common ancestor are grouped together, whereas species with a common ancestor in the very distant past are placed in different groups systematics - answer-hierarchical levels (taxa) based on hypothesized evolutionary relationships levels listed most inclusive to least inclusive - answer-domain, supergroup, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species adaptation - answer-any modification that makes an organism better suited to its way of life descent with modification - answer-populations change over generations; biological evolution; results in heritable traits that promote survival and reproductive success natural selection is the only way to achieve... - answer-adaptation structure-function relationship - answer-structure determines function; biological structures come about as a species adapts to its environment example of structure/function - answer-function: human hand can grasp things (fine control) and grab objects (power) structure-to-function relationship: opposable thumb (fine control); touching fingers to base of hand and wrap thumb on top makes "power grip" possible why evolution happens - answer-1. variations are produced by chance mutations 2. organisms are adapted to particular environments (some may be driven to extinction) 3. competition exists within and between species 4. natural selection selects "fittest" organisms 5. process occurs constantly in all species of life on Earth hierarchy of biological organization - answer-cell, tissue, organs, organ systems, organism (species), population, community, ecosystem, biosphere cells - answer-simplest unit of a living organism; surrounded by a membrane and contains a variety of molecules and macromolecules tissues - answer-association of many cells of the same type organs - answer-two or more types of tissue combined to perform a common function organism - answer-living thing, maintains order, separated from the environment; belongs to a particular species population - answer-group of individuals from the same species that occupy the same environment and can interbreed community - answer-assemblage of populations of different species that live in the same environment at the same time ecosystem - answer-formed by interactions of a community of organisms with their physical environment biosphere - answer-regions on the earth's surface and atmosphere where living organisms exist emergent properties - answer-individual components in an organism interact with each other or with the external environment to create novel structures and functions; hard to predict; cannot predict by looking at or adding up individual components - have to look at whole organism; *individual parts and pieces add up to more than what you expect because of complex interactions energy - answer-ability to do work anabolic reactions - answer-"building reactions"; require inputs of energy and matter; ex: building cell membranes catabolic reactions - answer-"breakdown reactions"; breakdown of molecules to use as energy or to prepare for disposal from the body homeostatic imbalance is also known as - answer-disease energy that comes into a cell must be transformed into - answer-ATP what producers do - answer-capture, convert, and use or store some energy from the sun what producers take in and put out - answer-(CO2 + H2O + light energy) ==> (sugar + O2) what consumers take in and put out - answer-(sugar + O2) ==> (CO2 + H2O + energy (ATP)) what way does energy move through the biosphere? - answer-flows in a one-way direction; gets transferred from one organism to another, eventually all flowing back to the environment what way do nutrients move through the biosphere? - answer-in a cycle: used over and over again; decomposers break down producers and consumers to release nutrients back into the environment how living things detect changes in the environment - answer-*stimulus* (from internal or external world) ==> *receptor* ==> *control center* (ie: cell nucleus, spinal cord, group of neurons...) ==> *effector* (produces action; ie: muscle contraction, protein synthesis...) response often involves _____ and promotes _____ - answer-movement, survival examples of response to stimulus - answer-leaves of plant follow sun; microorganisms follow light or chemicals; monarch butterfly senses fall and migrates south responses collectively constitute ____ and are examples of ____ - answer-behavior, adaptations characteristics of science - answer-1. guided by natural law 2. must be explained by reference to natural law (natural causes for natural phenomenon) 3. testable against the natural world (observable, measurable, testable) 4. conclusions are tentative 5. falsifiable (can be shown to be wrong) discovery science (descriptive science) - answer-begins with observation; operating without hypothesis; conclusions based on inductive reasoning (specific observations => general principle) characteristics of hypotetico-deductive method (scientific method) - answer-process by which scientists gain new knowledge or explain natural phenomena; use standard procedures and criteria; objective way to gather knowledge; circles back on itself - process is not predetermined scientific method involves... - answer-making careful observations; asking specific questions; designing ways to address questions (experimentation); interpreting data/observations; re-evaluating past work; asking new questions; communicating information Penicillin as example of scientific method - answer-observation: no bacteria growing near a mold (Penecillium notatum) hypothesis: Penicillium may release a substance that kills nearby bacteria experiments: grew Penicillium in liquid medium, applied liquid to uncontaminated bacterial cultures results: bacteria killed by liquid vertical evolution - answer-"vertical descent with mutation"; traditional way of studying evolution; process in which species evolve from preexisting species by the accumulation of mutations horizontal evolution - answer-process in which an organism incorporates genetic material from another organism, without being the offspring of that organism; can occur between members of different species; important mechanism of evolutionary change, especially among bacterial species prokaryote - answer-organism whose cells lack a "true", distinct nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; have relatively simple cell structure; includes all members of the domains Bacteria and Archaea eukaryote - answer-organism whose cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus that contains chromosomes (DNA); cells have membrane-bound organelles; includes all members of the domain Eukarya Domain Bacteria - answer-mostly unicellular prokaryotes that inhabit many diverse environments on earth Domain Archaea - answer-unicellular prokaryotes that often live in extreme environments (such as hot springs) plants - answer-multicellular organisms that can carry out photosynthesis fungi - answer-unicellular and multicellular organisms that have a cell wall but cannot carry out photosynthesis; usually survive on decaying organic material animals - answer-multicellular organisms that usually have a nervous system and are capable of locomotion; must eat other organisms or the products of other organisms to live protists - answer-unicellular and small multicellular organisms that are subdivided into seven broad groups based on their evolutionary relationships the genome is critical to life because... - answer-1. it stores information in a stable form (stores info that provides a blueprint for producing characteristics) 2. provides continuity from generation to generation (copied and transferred through gens) 3. acts as an instrument of evolutionary change (accumulation of mutations in the genome produce evolutionary changes) proteome - answer-complete complement of proteins that a cell or organism can make; the info to make its proteome is carried by the genome; proteins are largely responsible for the structures and functions of cells and organisms scientific law - answer-statement of fact that concisely describes an action; simple, true, universal, absolute; often expressed in a single mathematical equation; ex: gravity, motion, gases scientific theory - answer-related set of well-supported hypotheses that form a broad-ranging ~testable~ explanation about fundamental aspects of the natural world; complex and dynamic; accepted as true by the scientific community; ex: Cell, Gene, Evolution; *theories don't become laws; laws provide the basis for theories* biology is founded on the principles of - answer-chemistry and physics living organisms are composed primary (99%) of these 7 elements - answer-C, H, N, O, P, S, Ca atoms - answer-smallest functional units of matter that form all chemical substances and cannot be further broken down by ordinary physical/chemical means radioisotopes - answer-isotopes that spontaneously decay; give off energy in the form of rays (gamma) or subatomic particles (alpha, beta); mutagenic; can be used in research, medicine, studies of the history of life half life - answer-very predictable; amount of time it takes for 50% of atoms to change into something else tracers - answer-reveal a pathway or destination of a substance that has entered a cell, the human body, or an ecosystem Bohr model - answer-electron shells as concentric circles around a positively charged nucleus molecule - answer-2 or more atoms bonded together compound - answer-molecule wherein at least 1 atom is a different element; characteristics of compounds dramatically differ from constituent elements bonds - answer-forces that hold molecules and compounds together ionic bond - answer-attraction between atoms (ions) with opposite electrical charges electrolytes - answer-ions that carry electrical current in solution; common in body, dissolve in fluids covalent bonds - answer-when 2 atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons nonpolar covalent bond - answer-the atoms sharing electrons have similar electronegativities so they share the electrons equally (ex: O2, H2, CH4) polar covalent bond - answer-atoms with 2 different electronegativities share electrons ==> unequal sharing of electrons; electrons "spend more time" with one atom than the other dipolar (slightly + at one end, slightly - at other end); the ___ electrons being shared, the more ___ the scenario - answer-more, stable ____ of an atom will determine ____ of an atom - answer-structure, function free radical - answer-atom with a single, unpaired electron in its outer shell characteristics of free radicals - answer-organic, very reactive (spontaneously reacts with other molecules), reacts with other molecules to "steal electrons"; creates new free radical in "donor" molecule (which initiates a chain reaction, eventually causing damage) free radicals are formed by - answer-exposure of cells to radiation (UV, ionizing); toxins (cigarette smoke, air pollution); inflammation; normal metabolism hydrogen bonds give water unique properties - answer-1. water has temperature stabilizing effects water's temperature stabilizing effects: - answer-A. high heat capacity B. high heat of vaporization C: water's high heat of fusion D: frozen water is less dense than liquid water water's high heat capacity - answer-when heat is applied to water, the hydrogen bonds restrain the bouncing of molecules, so temp. rises more slowly / unit of heat; water holds more heat; has temp. stabilizing effects in the water in animals, in the bloodstream of animals thermal inertia - answer-resistance to temp change water's high heat of vaporization - answer-large number of hydrogen bonds must be broken to evaporate water; when water evaporates heat is carried away with it -> sweating/panting cools animals; to raise water from 100 to 101 degrees C takes about 540 calories water's high heat of fusion (melting) - answer-to raise water from -2 to -1 degrees C, takes about 1 calorie (still ice); to raise water from 0 to 1 degree C, takes about 80 calories; ice is used for cooling because ice at 0 degrees keeps stuff much colder and much longer than water at 1 degree (because we're dealing with state changes); ice isn't used for cooling because it is cold, but because it ABSORBS so much heat before it changes temp itself frozen water is less dense than liquid water - answer-bodies of water freeze top down; ice acts as an insulator; melting ice draws heat from the environment; has to do with hydrogen bonds; ice has fewer H2O molecules because of it's lattice form, making it less dense water has outstanding solvent properties - answer-"universal" solvent; in aqueous solution, water is the solvent; use molar concentrations to describe the way in which materials are dissolved in solvents hydrophilic - answer-compounds that readily dissolve; polar compounds; "water loving" hydrophobic - answer-compounds that don't dissolve or dissolve only slightly; nonpolar compounds; tend to clump with each other; important when it comes to creating barriers (i.e. separate internal and external content of cells) ionic compounds ____ in water - answer-dissociate (creates hydrated anions and hydrated cations); cation attracted to negative (O) end of H2O; anion attracted to positive (H2) end of H2O water serves as the basic transport medium - answer-where nutrients, ions, hormones, etc are dissolved; 80% of plasma is water cohesion of water - answer-H bonds hold water molecules tightly together; water to water interaction; water molecules stick to each other; flows freely adhesion of water - answer-stickiness of water for other materials; H bonds form between water and other polar materials; coats or wets a surface plants rely on _____ and _____ properties to get their needs met - answer-cohesion and adhesion (to draw water up their roots) high surface tension of water - answer-water molecules at the surface hold more tightly than those below; forms "invisible skin"; allows things that are small and nonpolar to sit on top of water/float (because of the way water molecules interact with each other) water has the tendency to undergo ionization - answer-H2O -> (H+) + (OH-); does this spontaneously; very small number of covalent bonds in water molecules spontaneously break and form ions; in distilled (pure) water, moles of H+ ion and OH- ion in concentration are = acids - answer-dissociate in water to release hydrogen ions (H+); sour to taste; ex: hydrochloric acid (HCl), stomach acid, is a gas, dissociates into H+ and Cl- in water, dissociation of HCl is almost total (strong acid) bases - answer-either take up H+ ions or release OH- ions; bitter; ex: sodium hydroxide (drain cleaner), dissociates into Na+ and OH- in water, strong base acids are ___ common in organisms than bases are - answer-more neutralization reaction - answer-acid + base ==> salt + water (HCl + NaOH ==> NaCl + H2O) carboxyl group - answer-R-COOH -> R-COO- and H+; weak acid, can lower a solids pH by donating H+ amino group - answer-R-NH2 + H -> R-NH3+; weak base, can accept H+ ions from solutions formula of pH - answer-pH = -log(base 10)[concentration of H+ ions in moles/L] written as pH = -log10[H+] ex: pH of 7 = 10^-7 mol of H+ ions/L each unit of change in pH represents a change of ___ - answer-10x ..... small change in pH number => huge change in number of H+ ions (pH of 4 is 10x acidic as ph of 5; pH of 4 has 10x H+ ions as pH of 5) (pH of 4 has 100x more H+ ions than pH of 6) why is pH important in bio? - answer-H+ and OH- readily bind to many other ions/molecules; pH affects: shapes and functions of molecules, rates of many chemical rxns, ability of some molecules to bind to each other, ability of ions/molecules to dissolve in water in the body of a living organism, the goal is to maintain stable ____ / ____ balance - answer-human blood cannot vary by more than 0.1 of a unit without the organism having a disease; human blood has pH of 7.35-7.45 buffers are... - answer-solutes in water that resist change in pH; when H+ is added, buffer may absorb or counter by adding OH- (or vice versa); many foods and metabolic processes add or subtract H+ or OH- ions formula for buffer system in blood to deal with CO2 - answer-H2O + CO2 <=> H2CO3 (carbonic acid) <=> H+ + HCO3 (bicarbonate) <=> 2H+ + CO3- can move forward or backward through reaction, depending on body's needs; buffer system of minimizing impact of having too few/too many H+ ions ocean acidification - answer-pH is declining - ocean is not becoming acidic, but is becoming less basic (0.1 change in ocean pH => ~30% change in H+ ions) acid rain formula - answer-sulfur dioxide + nitrogen oxide + H2O => sulfuric acid + nitric acid (acid rain) organic chemistry - answer-carbon based chemistry (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) <- building blocks of life allotropes - answer-different forms in which an element can exist (ex: Carbon can exist as diamond, graphite, amorphous carbon (carbon powder, v stable, good conductor)) inorganic chemistry - answer-chemistry of elements other than carbon characteristics of organic chemistry - answer-covalent bonding; always contains C and H; often quite large with many atoms; dealing with living things characteristics of inorganic chemistry - answer-ionic bonding; usually with + and - ions; always with few atoms; often dealing with nonliving things isomers - answer-organic molecules that have identical molecular formulas, but differing internal arrangement of atoms structural isomers - answer-same atoms, different bonding relationships; different chemistry associated with them because the STRUCTURE of the molecule determines the FUNCTION stereoisomers - answer-same bonding patterns, but different spatial patterns in atom arrangement (cis or trans isomers) enantiomers - answer-mirror images; Dextrorotatory = rotating to right; Levorotatory = rotating to left; different forms lead to different functions; ex: a diet of "left-handed" glucose would lead to starvation, because our cells are designed to handle "right-handed" glucose macromolecules - answer-large molecules (polymers), consist of many repeating units (monomers) polymer structure depends on - answer-1) structure of monomers 2) number of monomer units 3) 3-D way monomers are linked biomolecules are unique based on the _________ that holds them together - answer-type of bond dehydration - answer-removal of water molecule dehydration synthesis - answer-anabolism; removes water molecule to connect monomers together to make polymer hydrolysis of + water molecule - answer-used to disassemble polymers into monomer parts; add water molecule to break polymer different, specific _____ required for dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions - answer-enzymes hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis are ____ of each other - answer-mirror images carbohydrates - answer-"hydrated carbon"; universally used as immediate energy source; energy storage molecules; most abundant organic molecule on earth (think cellulose); structural component of cells carbohydrates often found in _____ ratio - answer-1:2:1 monosaccharides - answer-simple sugars; single sugar molecule, foundation for others; soluble, sweet to taste isomers of glucose - answer-glucose, fructose, galactose _____ is the most common form of glucose found in living cells - answer-D-glucose; binds well to cells glucose and fructose are ____isomers - answer-structural glucose and galactose are ____isomers - answer-stereo disaccharides - answer-contain 2 monosaccharides joined during dehydration rxn; important in transport of sugars, immunity, glycocalyx; ex: glucose + fructose <=> table sugar; examples include table sugar (sucrose), milk (lactose) glycosidic bond/linkage - answer-bond formed between two sugar molecules by a dehydration reaction alpha glycosidic bond - answer-occurs below the rings of O (lines point down) beta glycosidic bond - answer-occurs above the rings of O (lines point up) polysaccharides - answer-polymers of monosaccharides; branched and unbranched forms; short-term energy storage; structural component in some organisms (i.e. shells); low solubility, not sweet; ex: starch, cellulose starch - answer-polymer of glucose; storage form of glucose in plants; less branched; alpha glycosidic linkages hold polymer together glycogen - answer-animal starch; storage polysaccharide; liver, skeletal muscle; more soluble, more branched cellulose - answer-structural carb; beta linkages; unbranched; support and structure for plants; indigestible by most animals (beta linkages); broken down by bacteria living in the gut of an animal, animal cannot break cellulose down itself (symbiotic relationship) chitin - answer-polymer of glucose; each glucose with an amino group; very resistant to wear and digestion (animals can't break it down); forms the basis for arthropod exoskeleton, cells walls of fungi; very protective, hard to break down glycosaminoglycans (CAG's) - answer-structural component in animals; abundant in cartilage; important molecules in bodily fluid like sanovial fluid; have a lot of negative charges associated with them, draw water toward them lipids - answer-insoluble in water; not polymers; long chains of repeating CH2 units; renders molecule nonpolar function of lipids - answer-structural in cells; long-term energy reserves; messengers (travel around organisms body initiating physiological processes); insulation; cushioning; protective coating (mylein sheath) triglycerides - answer-long-term energy storage; BACKBONE of one glycerol molecule; 3 FATTY ACIDS attached to one glycerol molecule (long hydrocarbon chain) saturated triglycerides - answer-no double bonds between carbons; all carbons holding max. number of H; usually animal fats, solids at room temp, high melting point; can lead to buildup of fat in arteries unsaturated triglycerides - answer->= 1 double bond between carbons (typically more than 1); each C is not holding its max. number of H; tend to have lower melting point, liquid at room temp more beneficial for our health; plant oils ester bond - answer-bond between the fatty acids and the glycerol in lipids; created through dehydration synthesis phosopholipids - answer-derived from triglycerides, but third hydroxl group of glycerol is linked to a phosphate group instead of a fatty acid; key component of biological membranes; consists of 2 fatty acids (hydrophobic) and 1 phosphate group (hydrophilic) phospholipids in water - answer-polar phosphate "heads" near water, nonpolar fatty acid "tails" overlap and exclude water; spontaneously form double layer (bilayer) or a sphere (micelles) or glycolipids; eukaryotic cells bonded by phospolipid bilayer steroids - answer-skeletons of 4 fused rings of Carbon; One or more polar hydroxyl groups are attached to this ring structure cholesterol: key component in making animal cell plasma membranes; need cholesterol for sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone); steroids form the basis of... - answer-adrenal hormones (fight/flight), bile salts (to help absorb vitamins/nutrients); vitamin D production; myelin sheath (lipid coating in nervous system) eicosanoids - answer-need a 20C carbon acid called arachidonic acid (essential fatty acid) for body to form lipids called eicosanoids; use it to create leukotrienes and protaglandins; regulate body's inflammatory response, necessary for childbirth, etc waxes - answer-long-chain fatty acids bonded to a long-chain alcohol; very nonpolar; high melting pt, waterproof, resistant to degradation; examples: waxy coating on plant leaves, apple skin proteins - answer-some of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems; essential in cell structure and function; come with more diverse function than any other group of biomolecules proteins are made of... - answer-C, H, O, N, sometimes S; DNA specifies RNA specifies proteins some key functions associated with proteins - answer-metabolism (enzymes, hormones), defense (immunoglobulins, antibodies, toxins), cell recognition (MHC proteins - marks your body's cells as belonging to you, allowing the immune system to recognize self from non-self) transport (transporters, Globins), structure (fibers - keratin, collagen, fibrin), categories of amino acids - answer-hydrophobic, hydrophilic, acidic, basic; different categories based on different R groups in the amino acid polypeptide backbone - answer-amino acids joined together end-to-end through peptide bonds peptide bonds - answer-between C of carboxyl group and N of amino group characteristics of a protein are determined by - answer-the composition and sequence of amino acids hierarchy of organization in proteins - answer-primary, secondary, tertiary, quarternary primary organization in proteins - answer-1^0; specific sequence of AAs, genetically determined underlying structure of a protein that will go on to determine everything else about the protein secondary organization in protein - answer-2^0; the way the AA chain coils or folds as a result of bonding (H-bonds); alpha helix or beta pleated sheet; have "random coiled regions" as well tertiary organization in protein - answer-3^0; 3-D shape of polypeptide; complex R-group interactions, H-bonding, disulfide bridges, ionic bonding, van der Waals forces quarternary organization in protein - answer-4^0; consists of >= 1 polypeptide key properties of carbon - answer-ability to bond with up to 4 other atoms; *shares* pairs of electrons with other molecules; bonds are very short, very stable; *stable at different temps, all temps associated with life (from arctic poles to deep-sea vents) functional groups - answer-group of atoms with characteristic chemical structures and properties; exhibit same properties in all molecules in which it occurs (ex: amino group, carboxyl group) hydrocarbons - answer-C bonds with other C and with H; C and H have very similar electronegativities; used in FUELS because C-C and C-H bonds release energy when ruptured (C-C and C-H store energy); can be in chains, branched forms, or ring forms; short bonds and similar electronegativities create exceedingly stable molecules biologically important functional groups - answer-carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, hydroxyl, phosphate C, H backbone provides - answer-structure and stability; does not provide reactivity carbonyl functional group - answer-...............= O R - C ..............- H ^ aldehydes; polar, some sugars, ex: formaldahyde ....... = O R - C - R ^ ketones; polar, some sugars, ex: acetone carboxyl functional group - answer-.............. =O R - C ............. -OH carboxylic acids; polar, acidic, fats & amino acids, ex: acetic acid amino functional group - answer-............ -H R - N ............. -H amines; polar; basic; amino acids sulfahydryl functional group - answer-R - SH Thiols; disulfide bonds, some amino acids, ex: Ethanethiol hydroxyl functional group - answer-R - OH alcohols; polar, forms H-bonds, some sugars & amino acids, ex: ethanol phosphate functional group - answer-............... =O R - O - P - OH ............... -OH organic phosphates; polar, acidic, some amino acids, ex: ATP fibrous proteins ("sclero proteins") - answer-structural proteins; stringy, physically tough; do not denature as easily as globular; generally water insoluble; elongated, rodlike proteins joined by cross-linkages ex: collagen: in bones, muscle fibers, tendons, found in every organism in the animal kingdom, in spider silk (stronger than steel...) globular proteins ("functional proteins") - answer-generally spherical, ball-like; water soluble; sensitive to environment (denature easily) chemically reactive; polar groups on outside; ex: enzymes, hormones, antibodies, transport proteins (embedded in plasma membranes) ex: myoglobin (O2 binding protein associated with skeletal muscle) denaturation - answer-exposure of proteins to harmful agents ==> disorganization of protein structure; can lose tertiary, quarternary, or even secondary structures (never loses primary); causes: heat, changes in pH, chemicals...etc ex in humans: prolonged, very high fever may result in unraveling of proteins in body ex: cooking egg white... liquid consistency --> rubbery solid chaperone molecules - answer-oversee process of the folding of other proteins - guide proteins to fold correctly; inhibit incorrect interactions between R-groups; help move proteins across membranes; 13-17 different types; defects in chaperones can corrupt tertiary structures of proteins ****incorrect structure ==> incorrect function .....having proteins take on correct structure/shape is crucial examples of protein folding diseases - answer-mad cow disease: could be due to misfolded proteins, leads to misfolded proteins in the brain; Alzheimer's could be due to misfolded proteins in brain nucleic acids - answer-polymers of nucleotides; very specific cell function; large, complex organic molecules; DNA, RNA DNA - answer-double stranded alpha helix (twisted ladder); strands held by H-bonds; 2 sugar-phosphate backbones (5' -> 3') run in opposite directions - "antiparallel" in order to fit (one strand 5' -> 3', other strand 3' -> 5') genetic info center; arranged in chromosomes (23 pairs) in nucleus; specific characteristics RNA - answer-part single stranded, part double stranded; serves primarily in assembly of proteins; located in nucleus and cytoplasm; nucleotide subunits connected end-to-end to make nucleic acid; "phospho-ester bond" joins nucleotides phosphoester bonds - answer-sugar of one nucleotide connected to phosphate to create sugar-phosphate backbone (5' C of sugar connected to 3' of P) 5' C free at one end, 3' P free at other end purpose of sugar-phosphate backbone - answer-structure and stability every nucleotide has 3 components - answer-1. phosphate group 2. pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) - label 1', 2', 3', 4', 5'; important to keep track of for attaching other groups 3. a base (4 kinds in DNA, 4 in RNA, 3 in both) double ringed = purine (adenine - both, guanine - both) single ringed = pyrimidine (cystosine - both, thymine - DNA, uracil - RNA) complementary base pairs of DNA - answer-A:::T (2 H-bonds) G C (3 H-bonds) **sequence of bases encodes all genetic material of an organism most common and active configuration of DNA - answer-"B form" .... form of DNA will determine how the molecule will function types of RNA - answer-mRNA (messenger) rRNA (ribosomal) tRNA (transfer) ATP (adenosine triphosphate) - answer-relative of nucleotide, but is actually a nucleoSIDE; composed of adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphates; in cells, one phosphate covalent bond is hydrolicized - yields: - the molecule ADP - an inorganic phosphate molecule - energy (ADP is starting point for building ATP) ATP is made and broken down on demand cell biology - answer-study of individual cells and their interactions with each other function if different "types" of cells is a result of - answer-the *expression* of your DNA; all of your cells have exactly the same DNA cell theory - answer-unifying concept in bio; smallest structure and function unit of life = cell; life processes of metabolism, heredity, and homeostasis occur within the confines of cells; new cells only come from preexisting cells (continuous line of descent from earliest cells) who proposed cell theory? - answer-Schleiden (German botanist) Schwann (German zoologist) emergent property at the unit of the cell - answer-LIFE! 3 important parameters in microscopy - answer-1. magnification: ratio between size of image produced by microscope and actual size 2. resolution: measure of clarity of image; ability to distinguish 2 objects as separate/distinct 3. contrast: how different object looks from adjacent structures (dyes, stains, manipulation of light) cell size - answer-most smaller than 1 mm cell size restricted by - answer-surface/volume ratio (S/V) determines how large a single cell can be surface of a cell - answer-membrane across which cell acquires nutrients and expels wastes (increases as a square) volume of a cell - answer-is living cytoplasm, which demands nutrients and produces wastes (increases as a cube) as a cell grows, ___ increases faster than ___ - answer-volume, surface cells specialized in absorption are modified to - answer-greatly increase surface area/unit of volume when the diameter of a cell changes by a factor of 10x, the surface area changes by ___ and the volume changes by ___ - answer-100x, 1000x anions - answer-receive electrons; usually have >= 5 electrons in outer shell cations - answer-donate electrons; usually have less than 3 electrons in outer shell emergent properties happen at what level of hierarchies? - answer-every level... ex: emergent property of cell = life, emergent property of a population ex: when buffalo come together in a herd, they travel across plains... no one knows why, and they don't do it on their own, but they do it when the come together