International law
HC1 p. 61-84
Jus naturale: natural law
Jus gentium: law of people/nations
Subjects of international law: those whom the international legal system gives the capacity to hold rights, powers
and obligations.
The state
States are the only international legal actor that can create international law
State recognition:
Declaratory view: the creation of states is first and foremost a matter of law and the fulfilment of legal
criteria -> effectiveness
o 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States:
A permanent population: there must exist a population enjoying exclusive relations of
nationality with the nascent state, no certain size
A defined territory: authorities control a consistent area; no threshold requirements for
the boundaries
A government: someone who can exercise control over the territory and ensure its
compliance with international obligations
A capacity to enter into relations with other states
o States may exist without being recognized by other states A lack of recognition will not invalidate
statehood, it may have important practical consequences for the non-recognized state
Constitutive view: recognition by other states is a precondition for statehood
The recognition of governments
Recognition of a state is not the same as recognition of its government -> government is the representative of the
state that is entitled to act on the state’s behalf
Issue is relevant in cases of coup d’etat of revolution where two rival governments might exist at the same time:
Effective control test: which of these two governments in fact is in a position to employ the resources and
direct the people of the State in fulfilment of the obligations of membership. Whether the new
government exercises effective authority within the territory of the State and is habitually obeyed by the
bulk of the population
Legitimacy test: will supporting vigorously.. in case of overthrow or attempted overthrow of a legitimately
elected government of a participating State by undemocratic means, the legitimate organs of that State
upholding human rights, democracy and the rule of law
The right to self-determination
All peoples have a right to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social and cultural
development
UN Charter, article 1
Erga omnes character (essential principle of international law)
The Quebec Reference
Internal self-determination: people pursue their economic, social, cultural development within the
framework of an existing state
External self-determination: arises in extreme cases (situation of former colonies, where a people is
oppressed, where a definable group is denied meaningful access to government to pursue their political,
economic, social and cultural development)
, The acquisition of new territory
Cession: purchase territory from another state
Accretion: new land is created naturally (volcanic eruption can create new islands)
Avulsion: very sudden or violent changes (storms or natural disasters)
Occupation: no mans land, territory has never been the subject of any state (terra nullius)
Res communis: area that is not subject to the legal title of any state (high seas)
State succession: the replacement of one state by another in the responsibility for the international relations of
territory.
International organizations
Under international law, International organizations refer to organizations entirely or mainly composed of states
and created typically by treaty.
The United Nations
General Assembly: discusses and makes recommendations on all matters that fall within the scope of the
organization’s constituent treaty – the UN Charter
Security Council: has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security and is
composed of 15 members, including five permanent members who retain a veto power
The Secretariat: headed by the Secretary-General, services the different UN organs
The Economic and Social Council: hold the primary responsibility for economic and social matters within
the UN and is composed of 54 members
The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Trustee Council: administer the Trustee system
International organizations have the rights and obligations accorded to them by states: a power to conclude
necessary agreements governed by international law and immunity from the exercise of jurisdiction by national
courts.
- Reparation for Injuries Opinion case: The ICJ advised that the UN did have international legal personality and
the right to bring a claim for injury to its personnel.
Who is an international legal person?
The traditional view: only states can be persons or subjects under international law
The expanded view: in light of international agreements and customary law, other entities are capable of
having international rights, duties and the capacity to act (organizations, supranational entities,
individuals)
Theories of International legal personality for international organizations:
Will theory: It is the will of the founders which decides on the organization’s legal personality; if the
founders intended the IO to have legal personality, then it is so
Objective theory: legal personality of International Organizations mimics that of states; IO obtains ILP
when that entity exists as matter of law
Presumptive personality: as soon as an organization performs acts which only can be explained on the
basis of international legal personality, such an organization will be presumed to be in possession of
international legal personality
Other actors in international law
Other territorial entities than states that may possess rights and obligations under international law with
international legal personality. Also groups of individuals and private corporations.
Non-governmental organizations
Private entities without legal personality
Growing influence on the creation of international law
HC1 p. 61-84
Jus naturale: natural law
Jus gentium: law of people/nations
Subjects of international law: those whom the international legal system gives the capacity to hold rights, powers
and obligations.
The state
States are the only international legal actor that can create international law
State recognition:
Declaratory view: the creation of states is first and foremost a matter of law and the fulfilment of legal
criteria -> effectiveness
o 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States:
A permanent population: there must exist a population enjoying exclusive relations of
nationality with the nascent state, no certain size
A defined territory: authorities control a consistent area; no threshold requirements for
the boundaries
A government: someone who can exercise control over the territory and ensure its
compliance with international obligations
A capacity to enter into relations with other states
o States may exist without being recognized by other states A lack of recognition will not invalidate
statehood, it may have important practical consequences for the non-recognized state
Constitutive view: recognition by other states is a precondition for statehood
The recognition of governments
Recognition of a state is not the same as recognition of its government -> government is the representative of the
state that is entitled to act on the state’s behalf
Issue is relevant in cases of coup d’etat of revolution where two rival governments might exist at the same time:
Effective control test: which of these two governments in fact is in a position to employ the resources and
direct the people of the State in fulfilment of the obligations of membership. Whether the new
government exercises effective authority within the territory of the State and is habitually obeyed by the
bulk of the population
Legitimacy test: will supporting vigorously.. in case of overthrow or attempted overthrow of a legitimately
elected government of a participating State by undemocratic means, the legitimate organs of that State
upholding human rights, democracy and the rule of law
The right to self-determination
All peoples have a right to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social and cultural
development
UN Charter, article 1
Erga omnes character (essential principle of international law)
The Quebec Reference
Internal self-determination: people pursue their economic, social, cultural development within the
framework of an existing state
External self-determination: arises in extreme cases (situation of former colonies, where a people is
oppressed, where a definable group is denied meaningful access to government to pursue their political,
economic, social and cultural development)
, The acquisition of new territory
Cession: purchase territory from another state
Accretion: new land is created naturally (volcanic eruption can create new islands)
Avulsion: very sudden or violent changes (storms or natural disasters)
Occupation: no mans land, territory has never been the subject of any state (terra nullius)
Res communis: area that is not subject to the legal title of any state (high seas)
State succession: the replacement of one state by another in the responsibility for the international relations of
territory.
International organizations
Under international law, International organizations refer to organizations entirely or mainly composed of states
and created typically by treaty.
The United Nations
General Assembly: discusses and makes recommendations on all matters that fall within the scope of the
organization’s constituent treaty – the UN Charter
Security Council: has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security and is
composed of 15 members, including five permanent members who retain a veto power
The Secretariat: headed by the Secretary-General, services the different UN organs
The Economic and Social Council: hold the primary responsibility for economic and social matters within
the UN and is composed of 54 members
The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Trustee Council: administer the Trustee system
International organizations have the rights and obligations accorded to them by states: a power to conclude
necessary agreements governed by international law and immunity from the exercise of jurisdiction by national
courts.
- Reparation for Injuries Opinion case: The ICJ advised that the UN did have international legal personality and
the right to bring a claim for injury to its personnel.
Who is an international legal person?
The traditional view: only states can be persons or subjects under international law
The expanded view: in light of international agreements and customary law, other entities are capable of
having international rights, duties and the capacity to act (organizations, supranational entities,
individuals)
Theories of International legal personality for international organizations:
Will theory: It is the will of the founders which decides on the organization’s legal personality; if the
founders intended the IO to have legal personality, then it is so
Objective theory: legal personality of International Organizations mimics that of states; IO obtains ILP
when that entity exists as matter of law
Presumptive personality: as soon as an organization performs acts which only can be explained on the
basis of international legal personality, such an organization will be presumed to be in possession of
international legal personality
Other actors in international law
Other territorial entities than states that may possess rights and obligations under international law with
international legal personality. Also groups of individuals and private corporations.
Non-governmental organizations
Private entities without legal personality
Growing influence on the creation of international law
